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EEMB 147 > Midterm 2 > Flashcards

Midterm 2 Flashcards

1
Q

Cross fertilization

A

-important to not self fertilize or fertilize the wrong species
-self fert rates: Broadcast (<5%), brooders (>5 to 60%)

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2
Q

Avoiding reproduction with sister species (cross fertilization)

A

-O. annularis, O. faveolata, O. franski
-temporal separation (O. franski spawns earlier in the evening)
O. annularis and O. faveolata spawn at the same time, but their gametes are not compatible

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3
Q

Planula

A

-aka fertilized egg
-swims (days to weeks) with tiny hairs (cilia)
-settlement may use chemical cues
-be gregarious

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4
Q

Coral larval settlement

A
  • coral larvae settle on crustose coralline algae (CCA)
    -combination of bacteria and chemical molecules (from algal thallus) on CCA can induce settlement of larvae
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5
Q

Selection of CCA

A
  • some CCA slough larvae (kick larvae off)
    -coral larvae are attracted to CCA that don’t slough
    -tissue sloughers and fast growers are bad
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6
Q

Fishes

A

-phylum: chordata
-subphylum: vertebrata
-chondrichtheyes: cartilaginous fishes, cartilaginous skeleton
-osteichthyes: bony fishes, true bony skeleton

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7
Q

Diversity and Distribution of Reef Fishes

A

-Tethys Sea: origin of reef fish diversity
-land bridge in Middle East: separated Mediterranean and Indo-Pacific region
-isthmus of Panama: separate Atlantic from eastern tropical pacific
-land isn’t the only barrier: species in eastern tropical pacific are different than the species to the west

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8
Q

Otoliths

A

-ear stones/bones
-daily/annul growth rings
- size-age relationship

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9
Q

Reef fish lifespans

A

-otoliths = recorder of early life history
-size isn’t always related to age
-surgeonfish grow rapidly and reach max size early (size isn’t a good indication of age)
-parrotfish grows slower, indeterminate growth (size is better indication of age)

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10
Q

Sexual selection

A

-natural selection based on physical, sexual characters
-costly characters show high fitness (bright colors, UV patterns)
-UV patterns have extra receptor to see UV wavelengths

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11
Q

Gonochoristic

A

2 sexes
-produce either sperm or eggs

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12
Q

Hermaphroditic

A

Individual produces both gametes during lifetime

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13
Q

Simultaneous hermaphrodite

A

Both sexes at the same time
-barnacles

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14
Q

Sequential hermaphrodite

A

-change sexes during life cycle
-protogynous: female first
-protandrous: male first

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15
Q

Clownfish

A

-protandrous nest builders/guarders
-lays eggs and makes nest
-lots of parental investment in young
- protandrous sequential hermaphrodites = males then female (larger) (BECOMING NEMINA)

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16
Q

What determines when to be male and female (protandrous)

A

-big females are good to be able to contribute to the population, eggs require more energy to make
-small males are fine bc sperm don’t require a lot of energy to make
-if the females were small, they would make less eggs

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17
Q

Parrotfish (protogynous hermaphrodites)

A

-terminal males are larger than intermediate male/females
-are broadcast spawners, where males hold territories with harems of females
-males fight over territory for breeding rights
-being a large male is advantageous so they can protect their harem better

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18
Q

Sneaker/streaker males

A

-blue headed wrasse
-protogynous hermaphrodite
-terminal males have harem of females that do most of the mating via spawns runs towards the surface
-intermediate males contribute to the gene pool by sneaky/streaker spawning
-hang out on edge of harem and release sperm in to the spawns runs

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19
Q

Humphead parrotfish

A

-worlds largest parrotfish
-forms dense spawning aggregations
-green and white when mating, pinkish when not mating
-bump on head is used to control reproductive rights over harems, male on male fighting
-dominant bioeroders, heavily overfished
-small encroachment by humans can result in erosion collapse to almost nothing

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20
Q

Nassau Grouper

A

-Cayman islands
-aggregate for whole island
-requires sophisticated navigation because the groupers only mate in a very specific location

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21
Q

Fecundity (in groupers)

A

-BOFFs (Big Old Fat Females): very important for reproduction
-with increasing age= increasing amount of eggs

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22
Q

Bony fish larvae

A

-hatch with yolk sauce and feed on zooplankton after sac is absorbed
-stays in water column for weeks to months
-pelagic larval duration

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23
Q

Pelagic larval duration (PLD)

A

-dispersal of progeny from one habitat to another
-time in water determines dispersal distance
-varies among species, results in potential variation in dispersal distance
-behavior can change dispersal and connectivity patterns
-diel vertical migration

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24
Q

Homeward sound

A

-fish larvae on Great Barrier Reef use sounds of shrimp and other fishes to find reefs to settle in
-auditory attraction
-4x more larvae in reefs with high levels of shrimp sounds (indicates healthy reef)

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25
Q

Connectivity

A

-to what extend are spatially separated populations connected
-are marine populations open (High outside recruitment) or closed (self-recruitment)
-IT DEPENDS-metapopulations

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26
Q

Metapopulations

A

-many discrete connected subpopulations
-source: subpopulation that contributes lots of individuals to metapopulations
-sink: receives immigrants but contributes little to metapopulations

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27
Q

Jones 2005

A

-Amphiprion polymnus
-marked with tetracycline (antibiotic), makes marking on ear bone
-released and collected larvae from surrounding reefs
-33% of fish returned to 2 hectare natal site

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28
Q

Use of olfactory cues to find reef

A

-larval reef fish use olfaction to smell right habitat to settle
-ex: clownfish are attracted to anemone smell, rainforest leaf smell, and smell of water near islands
-can hone in on plants where reefs are located

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29
Q

Finding other Nemos

A

-clipped fin and sequenced DNA to determine how genetically related they are
-able to track them to individual reefs, dispersal of up to 200km or more
-lots of local recruitment

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30
Q

Connectivity and isolation in the Caribbean

A

-4 major regions of population connectivity in Caribbean, with 5th zone of mixing
-fish stay with regions, not a lot of mixing outside of regions

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31
Q

How will climate change impact connectivity?

A

-fish are exotherms, so increase in temp= increase in maturation of larvae/survival rate=decrease in PLD bc they mature faster
-impacts how they connect over space

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32
Q

What was Elton’s hypothesis?

A

-predators tend to be larger and less numerous than their prey
-predators must be larger than their prey to subdue them

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33
Q

Trophic levels

A

-chemical energy transferred producers to consumer
-about 10% of energy transferred to next trophic level

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34
Q

How do you get inverted biomass pyramids?

A

-over 50% biomass of fish is predators
-difference in generation times/turnover rates (plankton are shorter lived/fast turnover, not a lot of biomass individually)
-habitat connectivity: open ocean to reef/lagoon to reef
-shark behavior-too curious about divers, leads to overcounting

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35
Q

Feeding strategies

A

-taxonomic relations
-size
-locomotion
-mouth adaptations

Guilds and functional groups based on resources, impact or process

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36
Q

Zooplankton

A

-all heterotrophic plankton, except bacteria and viruses
-copepods, larvae of mollusks, crustaceans, etc
-herbivores,carnivores, detritivores, omnivores

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37
Q

what kind of feeder

Planktivores

A

-visual feeders (whale sharks, large manta rays, small damselfishes, caesionids, soldier fish)
-smaller in size, can be larger
-suction feeding or filter feeding (upturned mouth)
-large eyes, especially nocturnal feeders

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38
Q

How is planktivores measured?

A

-in situ (whole reef)
-follow water mass over reef
-take water sample from two positions, following water flow
Feeding rate=zooplankton density at Position 1 - Position 2
-gives idea about predation pressures
-wall of mouths= 20% depletion when comparing the 2 positions (predation rate)

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39
Q

Demersal zooplankton

A

-25x more zooplankton in sand than water during day
-80% migrate into water column at night to feed and avoid predators

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40
Q

Diel vertical migration

A

-aggregative behaviors
Day: lower in depth
Night: migrates higher in water during night to escape predators

41
Q

Emergence of coral reef zooplankton using sonar

A

-during sunrise, most zooplankton are in the benthos, towards the bottom
-during sunset, most zooplankton comes off the bottom and into the water column
-predictable/consistent migration
-AVOID PREDATORS
-emergence depends on size
-smaller zooks emerge first
-larger zooks emerge after visual foragers have gone to sleep

42
Q

Is planktivores distribution defined by predation risk?

A

-daylight: active foraging
-dusk/night/dawn: sheltering in coral

43
Q

Benthic-pelagic coupling (damselfish and corals)

A

-corals serve as a structural refuge for resident damselfishes from predators
-higher survival rate when damselfish hide in tightly packed branched corals compared to branches that are wider apart
-when fish were present, corals grew faster than when there were no fish
-more fish=more ammonium, more energy
-positive feedback loop: faster coral growth rate (from damselfish) =larger corals->larger corals=more damselfish

44
Q

Herbivores

A

-feed on variety of food sources: calcareous algae, filamentous and macroalgae
-from feeding specialists to generalists
-keep reef clean and transfer energy to secondary consumers
-may remove 90% of daily algal production

45
Q

Damselfish

A

-planktivorous and herbivorous (either/or)
-agressive defenders of territories -> ‘garden’
-may be reason other species school, to beat aggressiveness of damselfish
-can cause white band disease on corals, slupr coral tissue

46
Q

Intensive cultivators

A

-small, food-rich, high biomass sites
-highly aggressive, put a lot of effort into weeding territory don’t want someone else taking over
-cultivate area that they prefer
-cause coral damage

47
Q

Active cultivators

A

-larger areas of dead corals covered in range of turf algae
-not intensely cultivated
-less aggressive compared to intensive cultivators
-cause coral damage

48
Q

Effect of territories

A

-intermediate disturbance hypothesis
-in territories= high levels of diversity, intermediate levels of disturbance
-out of territories= low levels of diversity

49
Q

Other effects of territories

A

-coral recruitment, growth, and bio erosion (keep out coral predators)
-local microfaunal abundance
-nitrogen fixation by Cyanobacteria (hotspot of production)
-higher biomass and productivity inside territories
-keystone species

50
Q

Gobies and Acropora

A

-gobies are bodyguards of Acropora Corals
-small herbivores
-chlorodesmis (algae)are chemically defended (allelopathic)
-corals signal to fish and fish consumes algae

51
Q

Parrotfish - Scaridae

A

-eats mostly seaweeds, sponges, some corals
-sequential protogynous hermaphrodite (female first)
-harems of several females with single territorial males are common
-males defending their position from any challenge
-‘sleep’ at night under reef structure
-use protective mucus cocoon to protect against predators and parasites

52
Q

Pharyngeal mill

A

-“beak-like”
-scrapers and excavators
-pharyngeal jaw form pharyngeal mill (3 grinding plates)
-pharyngeal mill breaks down algal cell walls
-new recognition of browsers

53
Q

Browser

A

Rows of canine-like teeth

54
Q

Scrapers

A

Paired upper and lower plates with some cement
-see individual teeth
-scrape off short, filamentous algae

55
Q

Excavating species

A

-excavating species with strong dentition and cement, jagged teeth
-excavator with individual teeth barely visible (very robust, live corals)

56
Q

What are parrotfish feeding on?

A

-range of algae-preferences vary among species
-recognized that epilithic algal matrix (EAM) is particularly important
-mix turf algae, macroalgae propagules, micro algae, sediment, detritus, and associated fauna
-removes large amounts of benthic algae, clearing spaces on the reef than can be occupied by other organisms
-NEW EVIDENCE: research suggests that parrotfish target Cyanobacteria and other protein-rich autotrophic microorganisms

57
Q

Surgeonfish-Acanthuridae

A

-scalpel-like spines on either side of tail
-traveled/feed in schools (plankton, macroalgae, turf, detritus)
-detritivores: muscular stomach to grind food, flexible bristles for teeth, brushes up detritus
-herbivores: teeth for cropping algae, thin-walled stomach with acid secretions (macroalgae, filamentous algae)

58
Q

Detritivores

A

-fish feces, POM, terrestrial sediments, microbes
-78% of organic material
-often higher N content in detrital material
-important pathway for transferring energy from organic matter within sediments/rocky substrate to consumers
-important nutrient recycling pathway

59
Q

Browsers

A

-row of canine-like teeth
-surgeonfishes, chubs, rabbit fishes
-eats macroalgae
-often species poor, vulnerable to overfishing

60
Q

Rabbitfish

A

-28 species in genus
-only in Pacific
-mobile, diurnal feeders
-grazers that crop alage and browsers
-poorly studied
-body shape lets them exploit crevices and different plant parts (favors leaves instead of stalks)

61
Q

Rabbitfish feeding

A

-body shape allows them to exploit crevices (makes difficult to study)
-use a lookout-> tradeoff (one feeds, other looks out for predators)

62
Q

Sea urchins (diadema)

A

-graze on surface of reef, feeding on filamentous algae
-central place foragers
-intense herbivory
-broad diets (defended/undefended algae)
-facilitate primary production

63
Q

Sea urchins and primary production

A

absent diadema
-higher algal biomass, lower primary production
present diadema
-low algal biomass, facilitate primary production
-keep filamentous algae very short, limit shading

64
Q

Herbivores and coral reef function

A

-high herbivore->low algal biomass, high primary production-> high CCA and coral larval settlement
-low herbivore->high algal biomass, low primary production->low larval settlement
-macroalgae can take over emtpy niche space

65
Q

herbivore halos in patch reefs

A

-seagrass/algae around reef represents good food source
-little shelter, high risk
-herbivores graze a ‘halo’ up to distance where they feel safe around patch reef

66
Q

herbivores and zonation

A

-generally more in shallow areas of exposed seaward reefs
-decreasing abundance across flat and down slope
-affected by wave energy, habitat structure, availability of preferred food, sedimentation, and fishing
-crest: highest light, primary production, and herbivory (low macroalgal cover)

67
Q

coral-algal competition

A

-shading
-abrasion
-sediment trapping
-alter microbial communities
-allelopathy

68
Q

Phase shifts

A

coral reefs shifting from unusually low cover of reef building corals to persistent states of high cover of fleshy macroalgae
-lack of herbivores contributes to shift to macroalgae dominated

69
Q

Herbivores exploit different physical niches

A

flat areas: surgeon, parrot, and rabbitfish
vertical areas: ONLY parrot and rabbitfish
crevices: ONLY rabbitfish

70
Q

multiple consumers and multiple defenses

A

different defenses deter different herbivores
-aragonite (CaCO3) vs chemical defenses
-fed extracted organic chemicals defenses and CaCO3
-parrotfish: presence of organic chemicals=suppresses amount of algae eaten
-surgeonfish: presence of CaCO3=suppresses amount of algae eaten

71
Q

Parrotfish mouthparts

A

-robust mouthparts
-grinding pharyngeal mill
-no stomach
-mechanically breaks algal cells

72
Q

surgeonfish mouthparts

A

-finer mouthparts
-no grinding apparatus
-acidic stomach
-chemically lyses algal cells

73
Q

bioerosion

A

various activities of reef species that cause coral and coralline algal erosion
-bioeroder: erodes/weakens the calcareous skeletons of reef-building species creating rubble/sand/silt
-internal vs external bioeroders

74
Q

microborers

A

-bacteria, cyanobacteria ->phototrophic and fungi
-biochemical dissolution of calcium carbonate-both live and dead corals
-endolithic cyanobacteria-target of parrotfishes, weakens reef matrix
-boring mechanisms are unknown-uses organic matrix of coral skeleton

75
Q

bioeroders of sponges

A

-clionid sponges
-infest over 50% of corals
-heterotrophic (filterfeed) with photosynthetic symbionts
-use organic acids to etching cells into CaCO3
-fine, slit-sized particles

76
Q

molluscs

A

-especially bivalves
-characteristic boreholes
-mechanical and chemical boring
-facilitate bioerosion of corals

77
Q

sea urchins (diadema)

A

-erodes outer layer of reef
-Aristotle’s Lantern
-makes hole in corals for shelter

78
Q

bioeroding fish

A

-triggerfish, filefish, pufferfish, parrotfish
triggerfish: eats mobile invertebrates (in live corals), very aggressive in protecting their nest

79
Q

parrotfish poop

A

-generate >85% of new sand-grade sediment made on the outer reef
-Halimeda (algae) makes 10% more
-poop affects clarity/visibility of water

80
Q

biggest bioeroders

A

urchins->parrotfish->molluscs->clionid sponges->worms->cyanobacteria->pufferfish

81
Q

who makes what kind of sediments?

A

-bioerosion process determines kind of sediments made
-smaller bioeroders make fine particles
-larger make chunky particles

82
Q

bioerosion and coral recovery

A

-dead coral structure needs to be removed (by bioeroder)
-allows recruitment of new corals onto solid substrate

83
Q

Bolbometopon(parrotfish)

A

-dominant bioeroders, heavily overfished
-size, beaks, and rate of feeding
-small encroachment by humans can result in erosion collapse to almost nothing

84
Q

spongivores

A

-angelfish, parrotfish, cowfish, trunkfish, turtles
-controls growth of reef sponges
-defense-growth tradeoff (slower growth due to more energy being put into chemical defenses)

85
Q

sponges

A

-spongin: fibrous protein
-spicules: either siliceous or calcareous (for support or defense)
-chemical defenses
-synergisms

86
Q

spongivore controlling sponge distribution

A

-spongivory is intense on reefs lower in mangroves (with lower amounts of sponges)
-mangrove sponges excluded from reef when transplanted-> generally undefended
-spongivores reduce sponge abundance
-when spongivores don’t consume sponges-> coral-sponge competition (sponge wins)

87
Q

interference comp with chemicals

A

-allelopathy: use of chemical warfare in competition
-metabolite causes coral death
-mucus sloughing proposed delivery system for allelochemical

88
Q

corallivory

A

-direct consumption of live coral
-snails, COTS, urchins, mollusks, crabs

89
Q

butterflyfish

A

-feed on coral, invertebrates and algae
- feeds on coral mucus, polyp, and detritus-> niche partitioning
-facultative and obligate corallivores

90
Q

types of buterflyfish feeding morphology

A

-coral scraper mucous (brush-like)
-coral scraper tissue
-polyp picker
-tearer soft corals
-tearer-probes crustaceans

91
Q

effects of corallivory on corals

A

-slow growth of corals
-reduce fecundity (either repair damage or make gametes) (fish also target gamete rich parts of coral)
-impact bleaching recovery (zoozanthellae have slower recovery)
-vector coral pathogens
-alter coral community dynamics

92
Q

impact of snails on corals

A

-attach to the side of damaged corals and slup up the new C, N, P in the wound
-magnify thermal stress
-high density of snails: bleaching event-> caused complete coral mortality, corals didn’t recover
-no snails: no bleaching, corals were healthy

93
Q

White Pox

A

-Acropora species in Florida Keys
-‘patchy necrosis’
-cause: fecal bacteria from humans and water borne infections
-snails=vector for fecal bacteria

94
Q

Bearded fireworm and coral restoration

A

when bearded fireworms bite tips of corals, results in significant coral mortality
-vector for harmful microbes, destroys symbionts

95
Q

COTS outbreak

A

-resulted in large reduction in corals, throughout Moorea
-in the forereef
-consistent level of background coral mortality every year
-more outbreaks with higher fishing pressure->decrease in COTS predators->increase in COTS outbreaks
-rapid increase in pop->then rapid decrease due to COTS eating everything and having no more food

96
Q

invertivores

A

-triggerfish, wrasses, filefish, pufferfish

97
Q

importance of predation

A

-predation and limits to bioerosion
-protected vs unprotected (fished areas) areas and patterns of predation and bioerosion

98
Q

invertivores and bioerosion control

A

-Echinometra mathaei (herbivore and bioeroder)(sea urchin)
-triggerfish are heavily fished and release urchin prey from control
-decrease triggerfish=increase urchins=decrease corals

99
Q

excessive nutreitns and COTS outbreaks

A

-larval starvation and terrestrial runoff hypothesis
-nutrient pollution linked to outbreaks in GBR
-higher chlorophyll load=more COTS larval food
-higher growth and normal development

EEMB 147 (9 decks)

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