midterm 2 Flashcards
Anne Stine Ingstad
Instads wife and archeaologist that directed the excatvation of Norse turf houses in L’Anse aux Meadows
Olof Öhman
found the kensington runestone with viking writing on it which would confirm westernmost exploration by the Norse in the New World
José Melgar
Discovered the first Olmec colossal head and did not document it well
Zheng He
ZhengHe led grand voyages to places around Asia. Chinese fleet admiral during the Ming Dynasty.
Gavin Menzies
Argued for chinese presence before the arrival of Columbus. Wrote a book “ The Year China Discovered the World” and it is a fraud
Lewis Henry Morgan
Morgan suggested the idea that culture evolves in progressive and linear stages, with each stage corresponding to certain
types of “technology”
Stages:
* Savagery: Fishing, bow & arrow (Aboriginals)
* Barbarism: Ceramics, domestication of
plants/animals, metal working (Native
Americans)
* Civilization: Writing, phonetic alphabet,
creation of laws (Greeks, Europeans)
* Assumptions:
* Implied a racialized worldview
* Certain races/cultures will always be more
“civilized” (i.e. superior) than others
* Used as a justification for European Colonial
Rule
Matest Agres
suggested that certain Biblical passages
(including the Old Testament reference of
Nephilim “falling” from the sky) represent actual
eyewitness accounts of contact with E.T.s,
interpreted from the viewpoint of a technological
primitive people.
K’inich Janaab Pakal I
ajaw (“ruler”) of the Maya city-state of
Palenque during the Late Classic
Period. Von Däniken incorrectly labeled the sarcophagus as
from Copán, and compared Pakal’s pose the Project
Mercury astronauts in the 1960s
Thomas Jefferson
president of the United States. Jefferson. In 1784 Jefferson conducted what is almost certainly the first archaeological excavation in North America, carefully digging a trench through a mound that contained many human skeletons. Jefferson drew no conclusion concerning who the mound builders were, calling for more work on the mystery.
Cyrus Thomas
was hired to direct the Division of Mound Exploration within the Bureau of American Ethnology. . Prior to this
appointment, he had believed the mounds were built by an advanced race that no longer existed. But he abandoned this type of thinking for a more empirical approach seeking to ask one question: Were the mounds
built by the Indians? Thomas’ research became a
cornerstone of modern scientific
archaeology and laid to rest the myth
of a Lost Race of Mound Builders.
To Thomas, it was clear that Native
groups were responsible for the
construction of earthworks across the
United States.
Hernando de Soto
Spanish conquistador Hernando de Soto explored the
southeastern United States between 1540-1542. He
encountered mound-builders living in fortified towns
with large mounds and plazas
Caleb Atwater
Caleb Atwater, an American politician, historian, and early Ohio archaeologist, pioneered the study of earthworks in the Ohio Valley. In his 1820 work, “Antiquities Discovered in the Western United States,” Atwater categorized Ohio Valley archaeological remains into Indian, European colonial, and Mound Builder groups. He believed the Mound Builders were more advanced than Native Americans but less so than Europeans, suggesting they might have been “Hindoos” from India, challenging the conventional view of indigenous American capabilities.
Plato
The Source of the
Legend Atlantis
Erich von Däniken
proposed that there was indisputable and copious archaeological support for his claim that extraterrestrial aliens had visited Earth in prehistory and had played a significant role in the development of humanity.
Poseidon
the tale is continued. Atlantis was
allotted to the Greek god Poseidon, and the first
Atlanteans were descended from the god and a
mortal girl named Cleito. Their offspring, led by
Atlas, ruled various cities and lands in Atlantis
Ignatius Donnelly
Donnelly’s theories are considered the
source for many modern-day concepts of
Atlantis, including the idea that an
advanced Ice Age civilization was the
single origin for all races and past
technological achievements across the
globe.
Donnelly lays out his arguments in
extreme detail, and presents 13
distinct claims
Brasseur de Bourbourg
“translated”
the Troano [Madrid] Codex (a Maya
illustrated book) in 1864, associating
the work with elements of the Atlantis
story, including destruction by flood.
Augustus Le Plongeon
also translated
the same codex, connecting the Maya to the ancient
Egyptians. Both translations were
complete fantasy.
Helena Blavatsky
Theosophy was a new occult
movement which argued an “ancient
wisdom” of a true, pre-flood knowledge
underlying the world’s religions. This
knowledge was held by a secret
brotherhood centered somewhere in
Tibet.
* In The Secret Doctrine (1888), Blavatsky
described a series of “root races” which
inhabited the planet before humans,
including Lemurians and Atlanteans
Edgar Cayce
- American clairvoyant, “The Sleeping Prophet”
- Conducted 14,000+ psychic readings on past lives, reincarnation, afterlife, and Atlantis
- Founded the Association for Research and Enlightenment in 1931
- Explored alternative spirituality and healing
- Support from notable figures: Thomas Edison, George Gershwin, Woodrow Wilson
Frank Drake
He is best known for the Drake Equation, an
attempt to estimate the number of
extraterrestrial civilizations in the Milky Way
Galaxy.
Carl Sagan
he published the article Direct
Contact among Galactic Civilizations by
Relativistic Interstellar Spaceflight, using
scientific methods to explore ideas about
“ancient astronauts”.
Maria Reiche
- First archaeologists to study Nazca Lines in depth
- Started in 1941, mapped the lines from ground and air
- Noted mathematical precision in the lines
- Maria Reiche, “Lady of the Lines,” suggested the figures were astronomical markers
- Proposed they indicated sunrise positions of the sun and celestial bodies on culturally significant dates
- Devoted her life to understanding the geoglyphs
Helena Blavatsky
- Ukrainian mystic, spiritualist, and author
- Co-founded Theosophical Society in New York City in 1875
- Theosophy: a new occult movement emphasizing “ancient wisdom” underlying world religions
- Believed in a pre-flood knowledge held by a secret brotherhood in Tibet
- “The Secret Doctrine” (1888): Described “root races” preceding humans, including Lemurians and Atlanteans
Newark Holy Stone
- Artifacts discovered by David Wyrick in 1860 at Newark Earthworks in Ohio
- Stone bowl, Decalogue, and Keystone made of sandstone
- Keystone inscribed in Hebrew with phrases like “Holy of Holies,” “King of the Earth”
- Decalogue Stone has a condensed version of the Ten Commandments with Moses holding a tablet
- Rabbi Abraham Geiger determined the first stone was in modern Hebrew; Decalogue stone in archaic Hebrew
- Wyrick suspected of faking artifacts; supported the idea that Lost Tribes of Israel were ancestors of Ohio mound builders
- Archaeologist Brad Lepper suggests inspiration from Austen Henry Layard’s book on Assyrian ruins (1853).
Bat Creek Stone
- Discovered in 1889 by John W. Emmert at Tipton Mound 3 in eastern Tennessee
- Slate tablet with at least eight characters found with burials and copper bracelets
- Cyrus Thomas suggested Cherokee alphabet, linking it to mound builders
- Reappraisal in the 1970s by Cyrus H. Gordon identified it as Paleo-Hebrew, translating as “For the Jews”
- Most archaeologists believe it’s a 19th-century forgery, not a genuine artifact
- Robert Mainfort and Mary Kwas propose it may have been copied from a Freemasonry book
- Forger’s identity remains unknown.
Grave Creek Stone
- Discovered in 1838 at Grave Creek Mound, Moundsville, West Virginia, by Jesse and Abelard Tomlinson
- Small sandstone disc with 25 alphabetical and pseudo-alphabetical characters
- Henry Rowe Schoolcraft identified mix of Greek, Etruscan, Runic, Gallic, old Erse, Phoenician, and Celtiberic characters
- M.C. Reid’s 1870s experiment suggested the stone was a fraud, resembling characters created arbitrarily
- In 2008, anthropologist David Oestreicher suggested James W. Clemens, a local physician, forged the inscription
- Source of the inscription traced to an 18th-century volume titled “An Essay on the Alphabets of the Unknown Letters That are Found in the Most Ancient Coins and Monuments of Spain.”
Davenport Tablets
- Three slate tablets found by Rev. Jacob Gass near Davenport, Iowa, in 1877 and 1878
- Found with human burials, copper axes, and copper beads
- Depict cremation, hunting, and calendrical scenes with 74 characters in random order
- Sent to the BAE in 1877; Thomas declared them a hoax in 1885, citing amateurish inscriptions
- Gass reported finding tablets in loose soil with scattered human bone, raising suspicion of planting
- Leading theory suggests Gass was a victim of a hoax by members of Davenport Academy jealous of his genuine finds in local mounds.
Mississippian Period
marks the continuation and refinement of earthwork
constructions, including the impressive urban center of Cahokia. Its geographical extent is similar to the prior
Woodland Period, covering vast regions of the Midwest, Southeast, and Eastern North America. The period is
marked not only by distinctive mound and platform construction, but also shell, pottery, and hammered copper
art, as well as trade networks stretching as far as the Rocky Mountains
Adena Culture
- Adena Culture (500 B.C. to A.D. 100)
- Related Native American societies with shared burial complex and ceremonial system
- Geographic range focused on central and southern Ohio, with additional sites in West Virginia, Pennsylvania, Kentucky, and Indiana
- Lasting impact on contemporary and subsequent cultures
- Widely regarded as a precursor to later traditions, particularly the Hopewell culture.
Hopewell Tradition
- Hopewell Interaction Sphere (A.D. 100-500)
- Not all sites had earthworks, but the tradition extended from Lake Ontario to Florida
- Derived from earlier Adena practices
- Hopewell Tradition comprised various dispersed populations connected by riverine and overland trade routes
Black Drink
- Black Drink used in purification ceremonies by SE Woodland groups pre-European contact
- Main ingredient: roasted leaves and stems of Ilex vomitoria (yaupon holly), with other emetic herbs
- High caffeine content induced euphoria or trance-like states, often causing vomiting
- Clay cups used in Black Drink rituals found in high-status burials at Hopewell and Mississippian sites
Timaeus and Critias
represent dialogues used
to expand upon the order and characteristics of
the ideal city-state and the just man, as outlined in
Plato’s earlier work, the Republic
Minoan Civilization
In 1909, historian K.T. Frost implied a
connection between Atlantis and the
Minoan civilization centered on Crete.
Earlier work by archaeologist Sir
Arthur Evans at the capital of Knossos
revealed a large palace covering
20,000 square meters and 1,000
separate rooms
Woodland Period
associated with large portions of central and eastern North
America, and includes the refinement of ceramic/pottery technology, the use of bow & arrow, and a move
towards agricultural subsistence strategies. The Calusa, Adena, and Hopewell cultures were linked to mound
building sites during this period
Drake Equation
an
attempt to estimate the number of
extraterrestrial civilizations in the Milky Way
Galaxy.
Moai
were
carved by the Rapa Nui people between
Approximately 900 individual moai have
been recorded across the island. Nearly
half are still at Rano Raraku, the main
quarry on the island. The remaining moai
were transported from there and set on
stone platforms called ahu around the
island’s perimeter.
Dendera Light
is a motif found
in the Hathor Temple, Dendera,
Egypt. The temple is one of the best
preserved in ancient Egypt, with
construction dating back to the
Middle Kingdom period depicts the
Egyptian creation myth, with
associated text describing lotus-
flower, water, Horus, and snake
imagery.
Chiefdom
archaeologists suggest the emergence
of leaders or “big-men” within
Hopewell society, who likely
developed influence through the
creation of reciprocal obligations
within and between groups. This was a
step towards the development of
highly structured and stratified
sociopolitical organizations
K’atun
Maya pyramids were added to
in an accretional manner, with construction events often
related to the end of a cyclical 20 year k’atun period.
Theosophy
was a new occult
movement which argued an “ancient
wisdom” of a true, pre-flood knowledge
underlying the world’s religions. This
knowledge was held by a secret
brotherhood centered somewhere in
Tibet
Southeastern
Ceremonial Complex
southern cult
Platonic Dialogue
were used as
a type of interrogation to explore moral and
philosophical problems between participants as an
application of the Socratic method
Troano [Madrid] Codex
Brasseur de Bourbourg “translated”
the Troano [Madrid] Codex (a Maya
illustrated book) in 1864, associating
the work with elements of the Atlantis
story, including destruction by flood
Mastaba
During the Early Dynastic Period (ca.
3150-2686 B.C.), Egyptians with
sufficient means (not just pharaohs)
were buried in single level, bench-
like structures
SETI
) was
instrumental in scientific applications for the
search for extraterrestrial life (SETI
Icelandic Sagas
Icelandic Sagas are medieval narratives written in Old Norse that recount the history, legends, and heroes of Iceland and other Nordic regions, weaving together tales of family, honor, and adventure.
Bureau of American Ethnology.
In 1882, Thomas was hired to direct the
Division of Mound Exploration within the
Bureau of American Ethnology. Prior to this
appointment, he had believed the mounds
were built by an advanced race that no longer
existed. But he abandoned this type of
thinking for a more empirical approach
Natchez
town as containing a larger mound more
than 30 meters around its base, with the houses of leaders supported on
other low mounds in the vicinity.
Watson Brake
- Located in Ouachita Parish, northern LA
- Oldest earthwork mound complex in North America
- Straddles Middle and Late Archaic periods, built by a pre-ceramic, hunting-gathering society
- 11 earthen mounds, 1-7.6 m in height, connected by ridges in an ovaloid formation (270 m across)
- Discovered in the 1980s, Watson Brake shifted perceptions of mound building antiquity, pushing it back more than 2000 years in the region.
Poverty Point
- Located in Louisiana, near Watson Brake, Poverty Point was recently the oldest known earthwork construction in North America.
- Remains the largest and most extensive earthwork occupation and ceremonial site during the Late Archaic Period.
- Poverty Point culture extended 160 km across the Mississippi Delta and south to the Gulf Coast.
- Monumental earthworks include earthen “C”-shaped ridges, major and minor mounds, and a central plaza overlooking a slow-moving drainage to the east.
- Constructed mainly between 1700-1100 B.C., Poverty Point extended across 163 hectares.
- Unique six concentric “C”-shaped ridges range from 10-185 cm in height and were identified through aerial photographs in the 20th century.
- Outer ridges have a diameter of 1.2 km and are massive, with their identification delayed until aerial examinations due to over 150 years of plowing.
Newark
Earthworks
A set of artifacts discovered by David Wyrick in 1860 within a
cluster of Hopewell mounds in central Ohio known as the Newark
Earthwork
Knossos, Crete
Arthur Evans at the capital of Knossos
revealed a large palace covering
20,000 square meters and 1,000
separate rooms
Cahokia
- Cahokia, the largest Mississippian center, was occupied from approximately A.D. 1000-1350 and is now located in Illinois.
- The site features large mounds, although some have been lost due to farming and urban development.
- Cahokia experienced four major phases of occupation, reaching its peak between A.D. 1200-1300 before a decline and abandonment around A.D. 1350.
- The city gained and sustained power by controlling outlying areas through shared ideology and ritual practices.
Monks Mound
largest architectural
monument north of Mexico
Cahokia Mound 72
Burial mound with mass burials
associated with elite individual
* High-ranking male (approx. 45 years
old) laid on blanket of 20,000 shell
beads
* Surrounded by caches of arrowheads,
polished stone artifacts, and mica
* Four sacrificial males with heads and
hands missing
* Separate mass grave containing 53
female individual
Thera
The Atlantis story could have been inspired
by the destruction
Grave Creek Mound
Moundsville,
West Virginia during excavation by Jesse and Abelard
Tomlinson
Sodom and Gomorrah
Agrest suggested that the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah was a historic nuclear attack, and he proposed that aliens might have built ancient stone monuments globally. He conducted “archaeological” digs in Pakistan’s Kharan District, aiming to find evidence of ancient alien-human contact, focusing on megalithic architecture and water-control features.
Nazca Lines
The Nazca Lines are a series of ancient geoglyphs (large designs created on the ground) located in the Nazca Desert of southern Peru. Created by removing the reddish-brown iron oxide-coated pebbles on the surface to reveal the light-colored earth underneath, the Nazca Lines form various shapes, including animals, plants, and geometric patterns. These enormous designs, some stretching over hundreds of meters, were created by the Nazca people between 500 B.C. and A.D. 500. The purpose of the Nazca Lines remains a subject of speculation, with theories ranging from astronomical and religious significance to ritualistic or agricultural purposes.
Rapa Nui
is a small island in the
southeastern Pacific Ocean. Extremely
remote, the nearest inhabited island is
located over 2,000 km away, and the
nearest continental point lies in central
Chile, 3,500 km away
Palenque
commissioned some of the Maya
civilizations finest art and architecture,
including his famous sarcophagus.
Bimini road
Three lost halls of records (under the
Sphinx, in the Bahamas near Bimini,
and in Piedras Negras, Guatemala)
contain the written history of
Atlantis.
Ivan Van Sertima
African presence in the pre columbian new world
