Midterm 2 Flashcards
memory
processes involved in retaining, retrieving, and using information about stimuli, images, events, ideas, and skills after the original information is no longer present; active system that stores, organizes, alters, and recovers information
Clive Wearing
worst case of amnesia ever known; unable to form new memories; can remember skill sets; remembers his wife; memory lasts about 20 seconds
acquisition
the process of gaining information and placing it into memory
encoding
converting information into a useable form
storage
holding the information in memory until it is needed
retrieval
locating the needed information and bringing it into active use
three different types of memory
sensory memory, working (short-term) memory, and long-term memory
sensory memory
storing an exact copy of incoming information for less than a second; the first stage of memory
types of sensory memory
iconic memory and echoic memory
iconic memory
a fleeting mental image or visual representation
echoic memory
after a sound is heard, a brief continuation of the sound in the auditory system
short-term memory
holds five to seven items for about 15-20 seconds
long-term memory
can hold a large amount of information for years or even decades
modal model by Atkinson and Shiffrin
input –> sensory memory –> short-term memory (rehearsal) –> output OR long-term memory
sensory memory has a large capacity…
but decays fast
working memory
replaced short-term memory; duration is temporary and fragile; capacity and size is limited; relatively easy entry; relatively easy retrieval
primacy effect
better memory for the first few items relative to middle items; based on long-term memory
recency effect
better memory for the last few items; last few items are not displaced by future items; based on working memory
working memory is limited to approximately this many words
5-6 words
claims about recency
manipulation of working memory should affect the recall of recent items but not items presented earlier in the list; engaging in an activity that requires working memory should displace any contents currently in working memory; early items should not be affected because LTM does not depend on the current activity
function of working memory
used whenever multiple elements or ideas are combined or compared in the mind; virtually all mental activities require the coordination of multiple pieces of information; individuals can differ in WM capacity; a status
digit-span task
the number of digits the person can echo back without errors is that person’s digit span
average WM capacity
7 plus-or-minus 2 chunks
chunking
repackaging of the information held in WM; reduces WM load, but does not increase capacity
working memory capacity correlates strongly with scores on…
standardized academic tests, reasoning tests, reading comprehension tests
two different buffers in working memory
phonological loop and visuospatial sketch pad
articulatory rehearsal process
responsible for rehearsal that can keep items in the phonological store from decaying
launches the rehearsal loop
subvocalization (silent speech)
phonological buffer
holds verbal and auditory information; temporary storage
visuospatial sketch pad/buffer
holds visual and spatial information
central executive
pulls info from long-term memory, coordinates other components, directs and maintain attention; the traffic cop of working memory
four components of working memory
central executive, phonological loop, visuospatial sketch pad, episodic buffer
rehearsal loop
this loop draws on subvocalized speech, which serve to create a record in the phonological buffer; materials in this buffer then fade, but they can be refreshed by another cycle of covert speech
phonological buffer
a passive storage system used for holding a representation of sound; subvocalization produces a representation in this
evidence for the phonological rehearsal loop
phonological similarity effects; word-length effect; articulatory suppression
phonological similarity effects
letters or words that sound similar are confused
word-length effect
memory for lists of words is better for short words than for long words
articulatory suppression
speaking interferes with rehearsal
visuospatial sketch pad experiment
Brooks: participants memorize a sentence; indicate whether each word is/is not a noun; condition 1 –> indicate by speaking, condition 2 –> indicate by pointing; found that pointing was easier than speaking because the phonological loop was busy processing the sentence but the sketch pad was free
Brooks - the F demo
participants were told to memorize a shape (of the letter F); indicate whether each corner is an “inside corner” or an “outside corner”; condition 1 –> indicate by speaking, condition 2 –> indicate by pointing; found that speaking is easier than pointing because the sketch pad was busy processing the image but the phonological loop was free
visuospatial sketch pad experiments found that…
tasks are easier when information being held in mind and the operation being performed on it involve different types of working memory
episodic buffer
helps the executive organize information into chronological sequence
concurrent articulation task
the speaking or miming of speech while doing some other task; these procedures occupy the muscles and control mechanisms needed for speech, so they prevent the person from using these resources for subvocalization; support the model of the articulatory rehearsal loop
maintenance rehearsal
a rote, mechanical process in which items are continually cycled through working memory, merely by being repeated over and over; simply focus on the to-be-remembered items with little thought about what the items mean
relational (elaborative) rehearsal
a form of mental processing in which one thinks about the relations, or connections, among ideas; the connections created (or strengthened) in this way will later guide memory search
this type of rehearsal is superior to the other
relational (elaborative) rehearsal is superior to maintenance rehearsal
incidental learning
learning in the absence of an intention to learn
intentional learning
deliberate learning, with the expectation that memory will be later tested
Craik and Tulving experiment on incidental learning
for some words shown, participants did shallow processing (say whether the word was printed in capital letters or lowercase); another group had to do a moderate level of processing (judge whether each word shown rhymed with a cue word); final group had to do deep processing (identify whether each word would fit into a particular sentence); found that deeper processing led to better memory
shallow processing
a mode of thinking about material in which one pays attention only to appearances and other superficial aspects of the material; typically leads to poor memory retention
deep processing
a mode of thinking in which a person pays attention to the meaning and implications of the material; typically leads to excellent memory retention
intention to learn has…
little or no effect on memory
deep processing promotes recall through…
facilitating later retrieval
mnemonics strategies
techniques designed to improve memory accuracy and to make learning easier; in general, mnemonic strategies seek to help memory by imposing an organization on the materials to be learned
visualization strategies
using mental pictures to link items to each other; aids memory
peg-word system
a type of mnemonic strategy using words or locations (images) as “pegs” on which to “hang” the materials to be remembered
downside of using mnemonics
typically focus on just one aspect of the material trying to memory; cuts short the effort toward finding multiple connections between the material and other things you know; can make retrieval more difficult later
the case of H.M.
received brain surgery to control epilepsy; hippocampus was removed; lost the ability to form new explicit memories, but maintained implicit memories; could learn new procedures and past memories affected his current behavior though he couldn’t remember exposure
two forms of LTM
procedural and episodic
context-dependent learning
a pattern of data in which materials learned in one setting are well remembered when the person returns to that setting, but are less well remembered in other settings; dependent on the state the learner is in during acquisition
experiment with deep-sea divers
participants learned material under the sea or on land; couple days later, the material was tested under the sea or on land; results found that retrieval paths are less accessible if the context at test is different than it was during study
context reinstatement
a procedure in which a person is led to the same mental and emotional state they were in during a previous event; often promotes accurate recollection of that event; recreating the context of the learning episode
encoding specificity
the tendency, when memorizing, to place in memory both the materials to be learned and some amount of their context; as a result, these materials will be recognized as familiar, later on, only if the materials appear again in a similar context
memory connections can also…
change the meaning of what is remembered
spreading activation
activation travels within a network from node to node via associative links; a node’s activation level increases with increasing input from neighboring nodes
subthreshold activation
a node will not fire if its response threshold is not reached; subthreshold activation, however, can accumulate, which is why hints help activate memories
semantic priming
activation of an idea in memory causes activation to spread to other ideas related to the first in meaning; ex. easing to remember “bread” after hearing “butter” than “house” after hearing “butter”
source memory
a form of memory that enables a person to recollect the episode in which learning took place or at the time and place in which a particular stimulus was encountered
implicit (non-declarative) memory
memory that unconsciously influences behavior
explicit (declarative) memory
conscious memory; episodic and semantic
testing implicit memory
tests look at how a second encounter yields different responses than the first encounter does
repetition priming
priming produced by a prior encounter with the stimulus
repetition priming
priming produced by a prior encounter with the stimulus
propaganda effect
more likely to rate statements read or heard before as being true; implications for advertisements
illusion of truth
effect of implicit memory in which claims that are familiar end up seeming more plausible
source confusion
a memory error in which one misremembers where a bit of information was learned or where a particular stimulus was last encountered
skill memory
memory for actions; no memory of where or when learned; an implicit memory
processing pathway
the sequence of detectors and connections between nodes that leads to recognizing or remembering a stimulus/idea
processing fluency
the speed and ease with which the pathway will carry activation
steps leading to a judgement of familiarity
exposure to a stimulus –> practice in perceiving –> fluency –> stimulus registered as “special” –> attribution of fluency, perhaps attribution to a specific prior event –> “familiarity”
steps leading to the creation of an illusion of familiarity
manipulation of stimulus presentation designed to make perceiving easier –> fluency –> stimulus registered as “special” –> attribution of fluency, perhaps attribution to a specific prior event –> “familiarity”
hierarchy of memory types
explicit memory –> episodic memory and semantic memory; implicit memory –> procedural memory, priming, perceptual learning, classical conditioning
episodic memory
memory for a specific instance or episode; involves mental time travel; no guarantee of accuracy
semantic memory
memory for conceptual information; general knowledge; does not require time/place; initially new facts may contain episodic content, but will eventually become “sourceless” over time
amnesia
a disruption of memory, often due to brain damage
retrograde amnesia
an inability to remember events that occurred before the event that triggered the memory disruption
anterograde amnesia
an inability to remember experiences after the event that triggered the memory disruption
Korsakoff’s syndrome
longtime alcoholics; no problem remembering events that took place before alcoholism; unable to recall new explicit memories; intact implicit memories
highly superior autobiographical recall (HSAM)
remarkable autobiographical memory; otherwise normal cognition
recall is driven partly by this…
expectation
memory connections
link each bit of knowledge in memory to other bits of knowledge and other memories; serve as retrieval paths; can also lead to memory errors
shared connections may lead to memory errors
because they make similar memories less distinguishable; elements might be connected because they are associated or because they were actually part of the memory
intrusion errors
a memory error in which a person recalls elements that were not part of the original episode
Deese-Roediger-McDermott (DMR) Procedure
participants are presented with a list of related words with a theme; participants tended to mistakenly recall the theme word even though it was not in the list
schema
knowledge about what is typical of a given situation, event, location, etc.
schematic knowledge can cause…
intrusion errors by regularizing a memory
schemas are useful in memory because
the general knowledge reconstructs your memory of events by filling in gaps in memory
advantages of memory connections
serve as retrieval paths, enrich understanding, link to schematic knowledge, memory integration and cross-referencing
disadvantages of memory connections
undermine accuracy, “blurring together” of similar episodes
constructive nature of memory
memories constructed based on what actually happen and the person’s knowledge, experiences, and expectations
advantages of the constructive nature of memory
allow us to “fill in blanks”, cognition is creative
disadvantages of the constructive nature of memory
sometimes we make errors, sometimes we misattribute the source of information
pragmatic inferences
making inferences that can influence memory; based on knowledge gained through experience
misinformation effect
an effect in which reports about an earlier event are influenced by misinformation that the person received after experiencing the event; in the extreme, misinformation can be used to create false memories concerning an entire event that actually never occurred
suggestions that may cause errors in eyewitness tetimony
suggestive questioning and confirming feedback
planting false memories
easier to plant plausible memories than implausible ones and to add to a memory than replace one; imagery can increase one’s confidence in a false memory
retention interval
the amount of time that elapsed between initial learning and subsequent retrieval
as the retention interval increases…
forgetting increases
decay theory of forgetting
memory may fade or erode over time; relevant brain cells may die off or the connections among memories may need to be constantly refreshed
interference theory
newer learning may disrupt older memories
retrieval failure
memory is intact but cannot be accessed; could be caused by a change in context or perspective
causes of forgetting
failure in acquisition, retention interval, decay theory of forgetting, interference theory, retrieval failure
the testing effect
students have better long-term retention for materials on which they were tested compared to material they reread or otherwise reviewed on their own
autobiographical memory
memory for specific experiences from our life, which can include both episodic and semantic components
memories about ourselves
mix of genuine recall and schema-based reconstruction; subject to errors; biased to emphasize consistency and positive traits
what events are remembered well?
significant events in a person’s life; highly emotional events; transition points
reminiscence bump
enhanced memory for adolescence and young adulthood found in people over 40
self-image hypothesis for the reminiscence bump
memory is enhanced for events that occur as a person’s self-image or life identity is being formed; people assume identities during adolescence and young adulthood
cognitive hypothesis for the reminiscence bump
encoding is better during periods of rapid change that are followed by stability
cultural life-script hypothesis for the reminiscence bump
personal events are easier to recall when they fit the cultural life script (culturally expected events that occur at a particular time in the life span); large number of these events are within the period of the reminiscence bump
memory and emotional stimuli
emotions and memory are intertwines; emotional events remembered more easily and vividly; emotions can also impair memory by causing the person to focus their attention on important objects and draw attention away from other objects
flashbulb memories
memory for circumstances surrounding shocking, highly charged important events; remember where you were and what you were doing during those shocking moments; especially vivid and detailed
testing flashbulb memories
repeated recall; technique of comparing later memories to memories collected immediately
two factors that potentially affect memory for flashbulb events
rehearsal and media coverage
conceptual knowledge
knowledge that enables us to recognize objects and events and make inferences about their properties
concept
mental representation used for a variety of cognitive functions; meaning of objects, events, and abstract ideas; mental representation of a class or individual
categories
all possible examples of a particular concept; our knowledge of the world is organized in categories
family resemblance
the idea that members of a category resemble one another; in general, family resemblance relies on some number of features being shared by any subset of category members, even though these features may not be shred by all member of the category; the basis for family resemblance may shift from one subset of a category to another; proposed because definitions often do not include all members of a category
category membership
based on whether the object meets the definition of the category; definitions often do not include all members of a category, however
prototype
a single “best example,” or average, identifying the “center” of a category; the “typical” member of a category
prototype approach to categorization
membership in a category is determined by comparing the object to a prototype that represents the category
typicality
the degree to which a particular case is typical for its kind; how much they resemble the prototype
graded membership
the idea that some members of a category are “better” members and therefore are more firmly in the category than other members
high-prototypicality
category member closely resembles the category’s prototype
low-prototypicality
category member does not closely resemble the category’s prototype
typicality effect
prototypical objects are processed preferentially
sentence verification task
an experimental procedure used for studying memory in which participants are given simple sentences and must respond as quickly as possible whether the sentence is true or false; found the farther a category member was from the prototype, the longer it took for a participant to press the correct button
hierarchical organization
organization in which large more general categories are divided into smaller, more specific categories
basic-level categories
represented by a single word; default for naming objects; easy-to-explain commonalities; basic-level categories are learned first; neither too general nor too specific so we tend to use them in speaking and reasoning about categories
exemplar-based reasoning
reasoning that draws on knowledge about specific category members, or exemplars, rather than drawing on more general information about the overall category
exemplar
specific examples of category members; provide information about category variability; easier to adjust categories based on exemplars than prototypes; allows us to “tune” our concepts to match circumstances
conceptual knowledge includes…
prototypes and exemplars; mix of both
what is essential to a category?
depends on your beliefs about the category
people reason differently about…
naturally occurring items and manufactured items
categorization enables us to…
apply general knowledge to new cases; draw broad conclusions from prior experiences
category-based inferences can be guided by…
typicality; theories/broader beliefs
natural kinds/naturally occurring items
have relatively stable properties
concepts can be characterized by…
features, goal-derived categories, relational categories, event categories
embodied cognition
proposal that our concepts include representations of perceptual properties and motor sequences
hub and spoke model
a “hub” connects and integrates more specialized information (the “spokes”) from other brain areas
problems with traveling through the network to retrieve knowledge
1) sentence verifications are faster if the sentence is about a more prototypical stimulus
2) the principle of “nonredundancy” does not always hold
propositions
the smallest unit of knowledge that can be either true or false; often expressed via simple sentences by convenience
propositional networks
local representations –> each node represents one concept or idea
connectionist networks
distributed representations –> each idea is represented by a pattern of activation across the network`
