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PSYC 301: Cognitive Processes > Midterm 1 > Flashcards

Midterm 1 Flashcards

1
Q

all of your encounters with the world depend on…

A

your supplementing your experience with knowledge that you bring to the sitution

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2
Q

cognitive revolution

A

succession of changes in the 1950s and 1960s; involved a new style of research aimed at questions about memory, decision making, etc.

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3
Q

Introspection

A

a method in which people observe and record the content of their own mental lives and the sequence of their own experiences

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4
Q

limits of introspection

A

-some thoughts are unconscious
-for any science to proceed, there must be some way to test its claims, but this cannot be done in introspection
-science needs some way of resolving disagreements, but this testability in introspection is often unattainable

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5
Q

Behaviorism

A

observations of behavior provide objective data

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6
Q

limits of behaviorism

A

our behavior cannot be explained solely through objective data because the way people act and the way they feel are guided by how they understand or interpret the situation and not by the objective situation itself

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7
Q

Immanuel Kant’s transcendental method

A

begin with the observable facts and work backward from these observations; study mental processes indirectly since we cannot study them directly

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8
Q

Edward Tolman

A

argued that learning involves the acquisition of new knowledge; study of rats in maze

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9
Q

B. F. Skinner

A

argued language use could be understood in terms of behaviors and rewards

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10
Q

Noam Chomsky

A

published a rebuttal to Skinner’s proposal and convinced many psychologist that an entirely different approach was needed for explaining language learning; noted that Skinner’s views could not explain the creativity of language

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11
Q

Gestalt psychology movement

A

argued that behaviors, ideas, and perceptions are organized in a way that cannot be understood through a part-by-part, element-by-element analysis of the world

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12
Q

clinical neuropsychology

A

study of brain function that uses cases in which damage or illness has disrupted the working of some brain structure

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13
Q

neuroimaging techniques

A

enables us with some methods to scrutinize the precise structure of the brain and to track the moment-by-moment pattern of activation within someone’s brain

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14
Q

cognitive psychology

A

concerned with how people remember, pay attention, and think; most of what we do, say, and feel is guided by things we already know

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15
Q

many factors contributed to the emergence of cognitive psychology in the 1950s and 1960s

A

Tolman’s research on rats and mazes, Chomsky’s rebuttal to Skinner, Gestalt psychologists’ emphasis on the role of perceivers in organizing their experiences, Bartlett’s research that showed that people spontaneously fit their experiences into a mental framework or schema

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16
Q

early theorizing in cognitive psychology often borrowed ideas from…

A

computer science

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17
Q

Capgras syndrome

A

a rare syndrome that can result from various injuries to the brain; able to recognize the people in their world, but are convinced that some of these people are not who they appear to be; results from conflict in the two systems of face recognition: cognitive appraisal (knowing what the person looks like) and the emotional response that occurs when seeing that person

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18
Q

two systems of face recognition

A

1) cognitive appraisal –> knowing what the person looks like
2) emotional appraisal –> triggers an emotional response when seeing that person
Both systems must agree to result in a confident recognition

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19
Q

positron emission tomography (PET) scan

A

obtains basic information of the physical makeup of the brain; introduces a tracer substance such as glucose into the patient’s body that have been tagged with a low dose of radioactivity ad the scan keeps track of this radioactivity

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20
Q

magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

A

relies on the magnetic properties of the atoms that make up the brain tissue and provides detailed structural images

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21
Q

amygdala

A

an almond-shaped structure that serves as an emotional evaluator, helping an organism detect stimuli associated with threat or danger; also important for detecting positive stimuli, indicators of safety, or available rewards

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22
Q

What do we learn from Capgras syndrome?

A

-two systems of facial recognition
-amygdala plays a crucial role in supporting the feeling of familiarity, helps you remember the emotional events of your life, and plays a role in decision making
-many parts of the brain are needed for even the simplest achievement

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23
Q

Hindbrain

A

located at the very top of the spinal cord and includes structures crucial for controlling key life functions; regulates the rhythm of heartbeat; plays an essential role in maintaining the body’s overall posture and balance; controls the brain’s level of alertness; includes the cerebellum, pons, and medulla

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24
Q

Medulla

A

controls vital functions such as breathing and heart rate

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25
Q

Midbrain

A

plays an important part in coordinating the precise movements of the eyes as they explore the visual world; contains circuits that relay auditory information from the ears to areas in the forebrain where this information is processed and interpreted

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26
Q

Forebrain

A

this structure surrounds the midbrain and most of the hindbrain

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27
Q

Cortex

A

an organ’s outer surface; thin covering on the outer surface of the forebrain ~3 mm thick

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28
Q

Longitudinal Fissure

A

deepest groove that runs from the front of the brain to the back, separating the left cerebral hemisphere from the right

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29
Q

Central Fissure

A

divides the frontal lobes on each side of the brain from the parietal lobes

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30
Q

Lateral Fissure

A

marks the bottom edge of the frontal lobes

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31
Q

Thalamus

A

acts as a relay station for nearly all the sensory information going to the cortex

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32
Q

Hypothalamus

A

a structure that plays a crucial role in controlling behaviors that serve specific biological needs (e.g., eating, drinking, and sexual activity)

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33
Q

Limbic System

A

includes the amygdala, hippocampus, and parts of the thalamus; believed to be involved in the control of emotional behavior and motivation and also plays a key role in learning and memory

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34
Q

lateralization

A

virtually all parts of the brain come in pairs; physically about the same, but there are differences in function between the left- and right-side structures

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35
Q

Commissures

A

thick bundles of fibers that carry information back and forth between the two hemispheres

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36
Q

neuropsychology

A

the study of the brain’s structures and how they relate to brain function

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37
Q

clinical neuropsychology

A

seeks to understand the functioning of intact, undamaged brains by means of careful scrutiny of cases involving brain damage

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38
Q

Lesion

A

a specific area of damage

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39
Q

computerized axial tomography (CT) scans

A

provide three-dimensional X-ray pictures of the brain

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40
Q

functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)

A

provides functional imaging; measures the oxygen content in blood flowing through each region of the brain, which provides an index of the level of neural activity in that region and offers precise pictures of the brain’s moment-by-moment activities

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41
Q

electroencephalography (EEG)

A

a recording of voltage changes occurring at the scalp that reflect activity in the brain underneath

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42
Q

manipulations of brain function

A

techniques to manipulate the brain’s function to see what would happen

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43
Q

MRI advantages/disadvantages

A

advantages: tells us about the shape and size of brain structures
disadvantages: tells us nothing about the activity levels within these structures

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44
Q

fMRI advantages/disadvantages

A

advantages: tells us about brain activity and can locate the activity rather precisely
disadvantages: this technique is less precise about when the activity took place, typically summarizing the brain’s activity over a period of several seconds with no clear indication of when within this time frame the activity took place

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45
Q

EEG advantages/disadvantages

A

advantages: gives more precise information about timing
disadvantages: much weaker in indicating where the activity took place

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46
Q

fusiform face area (FFA)

A

area is especially active whenever a face is being perceived; correlated with face perception, but may not cause it

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47
Q

transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)

A

this technique creates a series of strong magnetic pulses at a specific location on the scalp and the pulses activate the neurons directly underneath this scalp area

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48
Q

localization of function

A

an effort aimed at figuring out what’s happening where within the brain

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49
Q

cerebral cortex

A

largest portion of the human brain; thin layer of tissue covering the cerebrum, or forebrain

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50
Q

three regions of the cerebral cortex

A

motor areas, sensory areas, association areas

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51
Q

motor areas

A

contain brain tissue crucial for organizing and controlling bodily movements

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52
Q

sensory areas

A

contain tissue essential for organizing and analyzing the information received from the senses

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53
Q

association areas

A

support many functions, including thinking

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54
Q

primary motor projection areas

A

certain regions of the cerebral cortex that serve as departure points for signals leaving the cortex and controlling muscle movements

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55
Q

primary sensory projection areas

A

areas that serve as the arrival points for information coming from the eyes, ears, and other sense organs

56
Q

contralateral control

A

a pattern in which the left half of the brain controls the right half of the body, and the right half of the brain controls the left half of the body

57
Q

somatosensory area

A

information arriving from the skin senses is projected to this region in the parietal lobe, just behind the motor projection area; each part of the body’s surface is represented by its own region on the cortex

58
Q

association cortex

A

can be subdivided further on both functional and anatomical grounds

59
Q

glia

A

help to guide the development of the nervous system in the fetus and young infant; support repairs if the nervous system is damaged; controls the flow of nutrients to the neurons

60
Q

three major parts of the neuron

A

cell body, dendrites, axon

61
Q

presynaptic membrane

A

the bit of the neuron that releases the transmitter into the space between neurons

62
Q

postsynaptic membrane

A

the bit of neuron on the other side of the gap that is affected by the transmitters

63
Q

action potential

A

a signal that moves down the axon, which in turn causes the release of neurotransmitters at the next synapse, potentially causing the next cell to fire

64
Q

all-or-none law

A

if a signal is sent from a neuron, it is always of the same magnitude

65
Q

different types of coding by neurons

A

-an idea is represented by specific neurons in the brain
-ideas and memories are represented in the brain through widespread patterns of activity

66
Q

forebrain subdivision

A

frontal lobe, parietal lobe, temporal lobe, and occipital lobe

67
Q

perceptions can change based on…

A

added information

68
Q

bottom-up processing

A

start at the bottom of the system, when environmental energy stimulates the receptor; data is gathered from the environment, then goes into our brains

69
Q

top-down processing

A

processing that originated in the brain, at the top of the perceptual system; we have information about things in our brain already; expectations about a person or object that we are looking at affects our perception

70
Q

direct perception theories

A

bottom-up processing; perception comes from stimuli in the environment; parts are identified and put together, then recognition occurs

71
Q

constructive perception theories

A

top-down processing; people actively construct perceptions using information based on expectations

72
Q

if the same data is given in different contexts…

A

you will likely perceive them differently

73
Q

apperceptive agnosia

A

people can perceive an object’s features but not the object in its entirety

74
Q

associative agnosia

A

people can see but cannot link what they see to their basic visual knowledge; failure in recognition despite no deficit in perception

75
Q

tachistoscope

A

device used to present stimuli for precise amounts of time

76
Q

the word superiority effect

A

responses are more accurate when the stimulus is a word, compared to when it is a single letter

77
Q

well-formedness

A

how closely a letter sequence conforms to the typical patterns of spelling in the language

78
Q

the more well-formed a letter sequence…

A

the easier it is to recognize the sequence and the greater the context effects produced by the sequence on recognition

79
Q

feature nets

A

a network of detectors, organized in layers; the flow of information is bottom-up; bottom layer is concerned with features while each subsequent layer is concerned with larger scale objects; each detector in the network has an activation level; detectors fire when their response threshold is reached

80
Q

starting activation levels depend on…

A

recency and frequency

81
Q

recency

A

detectors that have fired recently will have higher activation levels; a warm-up effect

82
Q

frequency

A

detectors that have fired frequently will have higher activation levels; an exercise effect

83
Q

efficiency vs. accuracy in feature nets

A

same mechanism that enable the network to resolve ambiguous inputs and recover from errors can also result in recognition errors; network sacrifices a small amount of accuracy for a great deal of efficiency

84
Q

feature nets and distributed knowledge

A

what a network knows is not locally represented in any single detector, but is a property of the network as a whole; knowledge is represented by a pattern of activations distributed across the network and detectable only if we consider how the entire network functions

85
Q

McClelland and Rumelhart Model

A

includes excitatory connections (one detector can activate its neighbors) and inhibitory connections (allow detectors to inhibit their neighbors); proposes two way communication

86
Q

geon

A

can be identified from virtually any angle

87
Q

recognition by components model: hierarchy of detectors

A

feature detectors, geon detectors, geon assemblies, object model

88
Q

recognition by components model

A

bottom-up recognition; viewpoint-independent; feature detectors –> geon detectors –> geon assemblies –> object model

89
Q

inferotemporal (IT) cortex

A

cells in this cortex respond to specific target objects and fire most strongly when that target is in view

90
Q

prosopagnosia

A

an inability to recognize individual faces (including their own) despite otherwise normal vision

91
Q

holistic perception

A

perception of the overall configuration rather than an assemblage of parts; may be used in face recognition

92
Q

experience-dependent plasticity

A

the mechanism through which the structure of the brain is changed by experience

93
Q

unilateral neglect syndrome

A

a pattern that is generally the result of damage to the parietal cortex and patients with this syndrome ignore all inputs coming from one side of the body

94
Q

selective attention

A

the skill through which a person focuses on one input or one task while ignoring other stimuli that are on the scene

95
Q

cocktail party effect

A

the ability for you to focus on one conversation among a busy party

96
Q

inattentional blindness

A

a pattern in which people fail to see a prominent stimulus, even though they’re staring straight at it, because they are focusing their attention on some other stimulus

97
Q

change blindness

A

observers’ inability to detect changes in scenes they’re looking directly at

98
Q

early selection hypothesis

A

the attended input is privileged from the start so that the unattended input receives little analysis and therefore is never perceived; distractor stimuli falling out of the stream of processing at a very early stage

99
Q

late selection hypothesis

A

all inputs receive relatively complete analysis and selection occurs after the analysis is finished; distractors are perceived but are selected out before they make it to consciousness

100
Q

early vs. late selection

A

each hypothesis captures part of the truth

101
Q

biased competition theory

A

a proposal that attention functions by shifting neurons’ priorities so that neurons are more responsive to inputs that have properties associated with the desired or relevant input

102
Q

priming

A

can occur if detectors have been used recently or frequently in the past or based off of your expectations about what the stimulus will be

103
Q

repetition priming

A

priming produced by a prior encounter with the stimulus

104
Q

spatial attention

A

the ability to focus attention on a specific location in space

105
Q

priming has a cost

A

priming the wrong detectors takes something away from the other detectors; getting prepared for one target seems to make you less prepared for other targets; limited-capacity system

106
Q

mental resources

A

some process or capacity needed for performance, but in limited supply

107
Q

ultra-rare item effect

A

a pattern in which rare items are often overlooked

108
Q

endogenous control of attention

A

a mechanism through which a person chooses where to focus attention

109
Q

exogenous control of attention

A

a mechanism through which attention is automatically directed essentially as a reflex to a response to some attention-grabbing input

110
Q

feature integration theory

A

your early evaluation of the input does involve parallel processing of the entire display

111
Q

two stages of the feature integration theory

A

preattentive stage and focused attention stage

112
Q

preattentive stage

A

parallel processing of the entire display

113
Q

focused attention stage

A

expectation-based priming allows you to prepare the detectors for just one location, and this creates a processing advantage for stimuli in that location

114
Q

divided attention

A

multitasking

115
Q

a task will be possible only if…

A

you have the needed resources

116
Q

you can perform concurrent tasks only if…

A

you have the resources needed for both

117
Q

divided attention easier if the simultaneous tasks are…

A

very different from each other because different tasks are likely to have distinct resource requirements

118
Q

executive control

A

the mechanisms that allow you to control your own thoughts; helps you keep your current goals in mind to guide behavior; ensures that your mental steps are organized and in the right sequence; can only handle one task at a time

119
Q

studies of people who have suffered damage to the prefrontal cortex

A

difficulties with executive control; specifically goal neglect

120
Q

perseveration error

A

a tendency to produce the same response over and over even when it’s plain that the task requires a change in the response

121
Q

goal neglect

A

a pattern of behavior in which people fail to keep their goal in mind so that they rely on habitual responses even if those responses will not move them toward the goal

122
Q

selective attention has a several-part account

A

one mechanism to block out unwanted distractors and a second mechanism to promote the processing of interesting stimuli

123
Q

resources that are general in their use and needed for a wide range of tasks can contribute to the difficulty of divided attention

A

energy supply needed for mental tasks, executive control, etc.

124
Q

as a task becomes more practiced…

A

it requires fewer resources or perhaps it requires less frequent use of these resources

125
Q

automaticity

A

a state achieved by some tasks and some forms of processing, in which the task can be performed with little or no attention

126
Q

the problem of automaticity

A

task performance can go forward with no executive control and so the performance is essentially not controlled

127
Q

ability to pay attention to certain regions of spcae

A

attention spotlight beam; stimuli falling “within the beam” and processed more efficiently than stimuli that fall “outside the beam”

128
Q

David Marr’s Levels of Analysis

A

computational level, algorithmic level, implementation level

129
Q

computational level

A

what and why a problem is being solved; representations for understanding the world

130
Q

algorithmic level

A

how is the tasked performed, what are the steps for the task

131
Q

implementation level

A

physical level; how are neurons in the brain working together to complete a task

132
Q

apraxia

A

problems with the initiation and organization of voluntary action; damage to the frontal lobe

133
Q

double dissociation

A

When damage to one part of the brian causes function A to be absent while function B is present, and damage to another area causes function B to be absent while function A is present

134
Q

specificity coding

A

representation of a specific stimulus by firing of specifically tuned neurons specialized to just respond to a specific stimulus

135
Q

population coding

A

representation of a particular object by the pattern of firing of a large number of neurons

136
Q

sparse coding

A

when a particular object is represented by a pattern of firing of only a small group of neurons, with the majority of neurons remaining silent

137
Q

feature detectors

A

neurons that respond best to a specific stimulus

PSYC 301: Cognitive Processes (3 decks)

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