Midterm 2 Flashcards
Why are teenagers so moody when they experience puberty?
- sex hormones
- lack of sleep - teenage brain releases melatonin later on at 1
- the prefrontal cortex is not fully developed.
- teenagers react more quickly from the more emotional part of their brain (amygdala) opposed to running it by the more rational side of brain (prefrontal cortex).
define puberty
how is it characterized?
brain neuroendocrine process occurring primarily in early adolescence.
puberty and adolescence are not the same thing.
it is characterized by:
primary changes = growth of penis / mensturation
secondary = growth of pubic hair, development of breasts, voice
and dramatic changes in height and weight
what are hormones?
chemicals secreted by the endocrine glands and carried through he body by the bloodstream.
what is the HPG axis? (hypothalamus-pituitary-gonands)?
please hormones and controls of gonads: testes in males and ovaries in females.
what is Menarche?
a girls first menstruation cycle. comes later in the pubertal cycle.
what are some of the factors that either make puberty Early onset or Later onset?
Early onset:
- obesity; stress; single parent families
Later onset:
- higher income; lower body weight
How does puberty affect body image?
girls are more self-conscious and less happy in their bodies than boys.
body positivity for both genders increased by the end of adolescence. (more accepting of bodies)
Is a stronger sense of identity within men created by the young men who develop early, or develop later?
late maturing boys in their thirties have a stronger sense of identity
what are some of the negative effects that early maturing girls experience?
more prone to smoking, alcohol, depression, eating disorders, earlier independence, earlier sexual experiences.
what is the corpus collosum?
what happens to it during puberty?
where nerve fibres connect brains’s left/right hemispheres.
during puberty, the corpus callosum thickens, which leads to better information processing.
what is the limbic system?
what happens to it during puberty?
the limbic system is “the seat of emotions”, its considered an older brain and where reactions come from.
a lower, subcortical system in the brain that is the seat of emotions and experience of rewards.
it matures before the prefrontal cortex.
what is the amygdala?
this is a limbic system structure
especially involved emotion (mostly anxiety, anger and fear)
there is a higher percentage of sexually active young adolescent in low income areas of inner cities.
facts
adolescent males who play sports show higher levels of sexual risk taking.
adolescent females who play sports show lower levels of sexual risk taking
ya
what are some of the complications of babies that are born to young moms?
- low birth weight of baby, also increased changes of neurological problems and childhood illness
- moms more likely to drop out of school
- moms more likely to experience depression
what are some positive outcomes of exercise in adolescence?
lower blood pressure, lower incident of type 2 diabetes, lower depressive symptoms.
what are some things associated with if youth decide to exercise or not?
- if parents are active
- peer relationships
- screen based activity
kids should be getting 10 hours of sleep and at least 1 hour of vigorous exercise per night.
yes mam
use of alcohol before age 11 linked to a higher risk for alcohol dependence in adulthood.
however parental monitoring (like in France how they give their kids a little bit of booze and model what social drinking looks like) then there tends to be lower amounts of problem behaviour (steeling alcohol) by adolescence.
oooo
what is the strongest predictor of substance use in adolescence?
their peers.
> > this is why parental involvement is important (to know who your children is friends with)
what is Anorexia nervosa?
eating disorder that involves the relentless pursuit of thinness through starvation
what is bulimia nervosa?
eating disorder where individual consistently follow a binge-and-purge pattern, self-inducing vomiting or using a laxative // or compulsive exercising.
What stage would adolescents be in in Piagets theory of cognition as they go through puberty?
Formal operational Stage
- can think about things like love, justice, ect.
- adoslecents an conjure up purely hypothetical make-believe situation, and try to reason logical about them.
- increased tendency to think about though itself and think more socially.
HYPOTHETICAL-DEDUCTIVE REASONING - begin to think more like a scientist, devising plans to solve problems/ systematically testing solutions
In David Elkind’s theory of cognitive development, what would characterize adolescence.
- Adolescent egocentrism = heightened self
- imaginary audience = belief that others are as interested in them as they themselves are, leading to attention- getting behaviour
- Personal Fable = sense of uniqueness and invincibility(invulnerability) “nobody gets me, nobody understands me”. also can be in risk behaviour.
What is executive function
adolescent cognition
umbrella like concept for a number of higher-level cognitive processes linked to the development of the prefrontal cortex.
- executive function involves managing one’s thoughts, goal-directed behaviour, resisting temptation, and exercising self control.
what is cognitive control?
adolescent cognition
effective control attention, reducing interfering thoughts, cognitively flexible
- adoslecense is a time of increased decision making.
- teens make risky choices in relative to adults because their brain is not fully developed yet
increased sensation seeking
increased desire for social relationships
myelin development, neural connections, and neural pruning occurs within adolescence.
just more stuff. from videos
What is the top-dog phenomenon
something that occurs in junior high…
moving form oldest, biggest, most powerful students in the elementary school tot he youngest, smallest, least powerful
its the idea of “big fish, little pond” in a small context, a person can be very important.
leaving elementary school, and then you social ranking is lower.
this causes the feeling of the world to be upside down for kids when they enter into middle school.
For adolescents, are 10 factors that contribute to IDENTITY?
- career / work path
- political identity
- religious identity
- relationship identity
- achievement / intellectual identity
- sexual identity
- cultural / ethnic identity
- interests
- personality
- physical identity
What stage would Adolescents be going through in Erikson’s Socio Emotional Developmental Theory?
identity vs role confusion = individuals are deciding who they are.
- experimentation is a key effort to finding out where adolescents fit in the world.
what is psychosocial moratorium?
a time when person can have a fluid identity.
e.g. when a pious person gravels after high school before deciding what to do next
What is identity?
begins with the appearance of attachment to a caregiver, the development of the sense of self, and the emergence of independence in infancy. Process reaches the final phase with a life review of integration in old age…
What are James Marcia’s
key terms: Crisis (exploration) & Commitment
Crisis: period of identity development during which the individual is exploring alternatives.
going though an internal process of “who am I”
Commitment: personal investment in identity.
What are James Marcia’s four stages of identity?
define them all.
- identity diffusion = pre-crisis/ commitments ; undecided about occupational / ideological choices but also show little interest…
- identity foreclosure - individuals who have made a commitment but have not experiences a crisis.
e. g. going to church because your family goes. not something you have debated, you just attend… - identity moratorium - status of individuals who are in the midst of a crisis but whose commitments are absent or only vaguely defined.
e. g. decided that you did not want to go to church anymore. - identity achievement - undergone crisis and made a commitment…
e. g. decided that they didn’t want to be christian, and instead wanted to be buddhist.
… go back and forth between moratorium and achievement.
how you come to your own identity in different aspects of your life.
What is Ethnic identity?
enduring aspect act included a sense of membership in an ethnic group and attitudes and feeling related to that membership
sometimes kids adopt a bicultural identity / balancing home life with their major culture.
positive ethnic identity and pride has a positive effect on adolescents of ethnic minority groups.
Adolescence often alters the relationship between parents and children…
teenagers are more interested in social relationships with peers than they are parents.
what are the three methods of monitoring adolescents?
- solicitation = asking questions
(this is the method that is most encouraged. being sincerely interested in what is going on in their lives) - control = enforcing disclosure rules
(authoritarian. .. does not have as many positive outcomes) - snooping = a strategy that emerges when youth don’t comply.
(not good strategy , breaks trust with teenager)
what are some areas of conflict between parents and adolescents?
when does conflict peak and de-escalate?
- desire for autonomy
- conflict escalates through high school / calms down at 17-20.
securely attached adolescents are less likely to struggle emotionally and participate in risky behaviour
What kinds of peer relationships do adolescents have?
- around 8 or 9, there is a theme of conformity to peers. they like large number of peers to play with (20 people at a birthday party)
- in early adolescent teenage years, they typically like smaller social groups. relationships are more intense/intimate.
- peers play an important role in sharing information. kids share a lot less with their parents and more with peers.
how do peers affect an individuals social identity?
adolescents are more likely to conform to pees when uncertain about social identity and in the presence of someone who is perceived to have a higher status.
conform to the kid who is the most popular, the oldest, ect.
What is a Clique?
small groups (2-12 individuals); members are usually of the same gender and about the same age.
bonding element to cliques./ in group / out group mentality
individuals who spend a lot of time together.
What are Crowds?
larger than cliques / less personal; usually based on reputation ; may or may not spend much time together
what are the three stages that characterize the development of romantic relationships in adolescents?
- entering into romantic attractions (11 - 13) = triggered by puberty; crushes on someone are common; may or may not interact with their crust.
- Exploring romantic relationships (14-16) = Casual dating - between individuals who are mutually attracted.
dating happens within friend groups. (this reflects the importance of peers in adolescents lives) - Consolidating romantic relationships (17-19) = dyadic romantic bonds; more serious relationships develop; strong emotional bonds often more stable and enduring than earlier bonds; typically lasts one year or more.
What are some of the global similarities and differences in the adolescent experience.
- Health = increase in illicit drug use and unprotected sex.
- Gender = education access and sexual expression unequal between females and males
- Family = tight family structure vs. family mobility
- Peers = more/less important depending on culture and situation.
What is Rite of Passage?
ceremony or ritual marking an individual’s transition from one status to another.
What is sensation seeking?
desire to experience novelty and reward ; usually involves risk
teenagers brains light up to exciting things.
what is hot cognition?
describes the reasoning / decision making under highly emotional conditions.
make a different decision than they normally would when they are very elevated. e.g. breakup
what are some problems that adolescents face?
- sensation seeking.
- risk taking behaviours (higher mortality rates)
- Trend is ubiquitous and directly tied to brain development
- Hot cognition
- presence of peers increases the likelihood of risky decisions. (it can be that they want to impress their peers) a peer is watching they will take more risks.
What is bullying?
the repeated use of strength to intimidate or coerce another
bully uses physical strength, popularity, or access to embarrassing information to control or harm others.
can involve physical or verbal attacks, spreading rumours or exploding someone from social interactions.
which children tend to be at risk of bullying?
anxious / socially withdrawn children and aggressive children.
what are some protective factors to combat bullying?
supportive friends; education around bullying.
There is a higher rate of depression among adolescent girls.
why is this?
- girls tend to internalize emotions
- girls tend to ruminate / amplify depression
- girls self-image, especially their body image are more negative than males.
- girls face more discrimination
- puberty occurs earlier for girls
- depression in girls is linked to use of social media.
from ages 3 to 6 years old, where does most of the growth occur in the brain?
the prefrontal cortex
by what age does mylenation complete in the brain (specifically related to hand-eye coordination?)
age 4
mylenation that is related to areas focusing attention complete itself at what age?
middle / late childhood.
Mylenation that is related to higher level thinking skills is complete at what age?
late adolescence/ emerging adulthood.
Gross motor development in children + ages?
3 years old = simple movements
4 years old = simple movements + more adventurous
middle/ late childhood = children’s motor skills become smoother and more coordinated
Fine motor development (ages + stages)?
5 years old = can move hand, arm, body with command of the eye
10-12 year olds = can manipulate their bodies similar to adults.
increased myelination in central nervous system = improved fine motor skills (usually happens in middle / late childhood)
Girls generally have better fine motor skills than boys.
What is Piaget’s Preoperational stage?
2-7 years old.
- kids represent the world wth words, images and drawings
- Form stable concepts and begin to reason
- reasoning skills still not fully developed.
Also develops: EGOCENTRISM, ANIMISM, CONSERVATION, CENTRATION.
egocentrism = inability to distinguish one’s own perspective and someone else’s
animism = belief that inanimate objects have life-like qualities, capable of action
conservation = lack awareness that alerting an object or substance’s appearance does not change its basic properties.
centration = focusing of attention on one characteristic to the exclusion of all others.
What is Piages concrete operational stage?
7 -11 years old
Seriation - the task of ordering objects according to a qualitative quality of the objects. e.g. sort the money from smallest to largest (dime, nickel, quarter, loonie, twoonie)
Difficulties for children at this age = thinking about abstract concepts e.g. love, justice.
What is the Zone of proximal development (ZPD)?
Vgotsky
task range too difficult for child to master alone; can be learned with guidance / assistance of adults or more skilled children
What is the lower limit / upper limit of the ZPD?
Vgotsky
Lower limit = level of skill reached by the child working independently
upper limit = level of additional responsibility the child chan accept with the assistance of an able instructor.
What is scaffolding?
Vgotsky
changing support level; adjusting the amount of guidance to fit a Childs needs.
What are the 4 teaching strategies that Vgotsky recommends in his ZPD theory?
- ACCESS CHILD’S ZPD = skilled helper gives tasks varying in difficulty to determine best level of instruction.
- USE CHILDS’S UPPER ZPD in teaching = teaching begins near zone’s upper limit; provide support when needed.
- USE SKILLED PEERS = benefit from the support and guidance of more skilled children.
- PLACE INSTRUCTION IN MEANIFUL CONTEXT = provide changes to experience learning in real-world settings.
Types of attention:
What is executive attention?
involves planning actions, allocating attention to goals, detecting and compensating for errors, monitoring progress on tasks and dealing with novel or difficult circumstances
This type of development occurs mostly in preschool years.
Types of attention:
Define: sustained attention (vigilance)
focus, extended engagement with task
type of attention mainly develops in preschool years
Types of attention:
define: Salient versus relevant dimensions
More likely to pay attention to stimuli that stands out (salient), even if they are irrelevant.
After age 6 or 7, they attend more efficiently to the relevant aspects, reflecting cognitive control of attention.
(this is the type of attention that preschool children have not yet mastered)
Types of attention:
Define: planfullness
elementary school age children are more likely to systematically compare the details, one detail at a time.
Types of memory
(1/3)
define & provide strategies for SHORT TERM MEMORY
Short term memory = individuals retain information for up to 30 seconds if there is no rehearsal.
- speed of cognitive tasks improve dramatically in the childhood years of (3-7), a pattern that is attributable to myelination of neurons.
- after the age of seven it does not increase very much.
strategies: deliberate mental activities to improve the processing of information, but require efforts and work.
Types of memory:
2/3
Define: Working Memory
- mental “workbench” to manipulate and assemble information to make decisions, solve problems, comprehend written and spoken language
- develops slowly; 8 year old children hold in memory only half the items of adults.
- more active and powerful in modifying information
- involves bringing information to mind and mentally working with or updating it; linking ideas together
Types of memory:
3/3
Define: Long-Term memory.
also…. define: knowledge and expertise
- Long-term Memory - relatively permanent and unlimited type of memory that increases with age during middle and late childhood
- Improves across childhood as selective attention, short-term memory capacity, working memory all improve.
- Children actively construct their memory forming knowledge, expertise which influence long-term memory
- KNOWLEDGE AND EXPERTISE - experts have acquired extensive knowledge about particular content which influences what they notice and how they organize, represent, interpret information
4 strategies to help children long term memory?
- guide children to ELABORATE on the information they are to remember
- Motivate children to remember material by understanding it opposed to memorizing it.
- Repeat and vary instructional information, and link it to other information early and often
- Embed memory-relevant language when instructing children.
Fuzzy trace theory:
who developed it?
What 2 types of memory representations does it contain
Developed by brainer & Reyna.
A. Verbatim memory trace = precise details of the information
B. Gist = refers to the central idea of the information .
* when gist is used, fuzzy traces are built up)
What are 3 important attributes for executive function? (diamond & Lee)
- Self-Control / inhibition = need to develop self-control that allows them to concentrate on and persist in learning tasks
- Working memory = need effective working memory to mental work masses of information
- Flexibility = need to be flexible in thinking to consider different strategies and perspectives.
What is Autobiographical Memory?
Developing a sense of self requires building a story of one’s life, or an autobiography, based on memory of significant events and experiences in life.
What is Theory of mind?
the ability to read the mental state of others.
by 4-5 children use theory of mind to understand that others may believe things that are false.
Define: Thinking
Manipulating and transforming information into memory.
Define Critical thinking
thinking reflectively/ productively, evaluating facts.
–> mindfulness can be an important tool to help children improve many cognitive funticions (attention; self-regulation; executive function; stress)
What is creative thinking?
2. subcategories: convergent thinking and divergent thinking
Creative thinking = the ability to think in novel/ unusual ways and come up with unique solutions to problems
Convergent thinking = produces one correct answer.
divergent thinking = produces many different answers to the same question and characterizes creativity.
Intelligence::
What is Mental Age?
individual level of mental development relative to others
Intelligence:
What is intelligence quotient (IQ)?
mental age / chronological age x 100
Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory says that intelligence comes in 3 forms… what are they?
- Analytical intelligence = analyze, judge, evaluate, compare and contrast.
- creative intelligence = create, design, invent, originate, and image
- Practical intelligence = use, apply, implement, and put ideas into practices.
What are the Gardner’s Eight frames of mind (intelligence)?
- verbal = thinking in words, language to express meaning
- Mathematical = carry out mathematical operations
- Spatial = think 3 dimensionally
- Bodily-kinesthetic = manipulate objects and be physically adept
- Musical = sensitivity to pitch, melody, rhythm, and tone
- Interpersonal = understand/interact effectively with others
- Intrapersonal = ability to understand oneself.
- Natrualist = observe nature patterns; usually understand natural/human world.
What is the Flynn effect?
worldwide increase in intelligence test scores has occurred within a short period of time.
What is Dyslexia?
severe impairment in reading and spelling
what is Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)?
consistently shows one or more of these characteristics over time:
inattention; hyperactivity; impulsivity
What is autism spectrum disorder (ASDs)
issues with communication, social interactions, and repetitive behaviours.
What is phonology?
sound system of a language, including the sounds used and how they may be combined (p, h, ph)
What is Morphology
units of meaning involved involved in word formations (e.g. children begin using the plural and possessive forms of nouns)
Define: Syntax
way words are combined to form acceptable phrases / sentences (grammar)
Define: Semantics
aspect of language that refers to the meaning of words and sentences. (early childhood)
eg… differences in punctuation change sentences
Define: Pragmatics
appropriate use of language in different contexts
What is the phonics approach?
reading instructions should teach basic rules for translating written summons to sounds.
what is the whole language approach?
reading instructions should parallel children’s natural language learning.
What is the constructivist approach?
learer centered, emphasizes importance of individuals actively constructing their knowledge and understanding with gudidance from the theacher.
What is the direct institution approach?
teacher entered. characterized by the teacher direction and control. high teacher expectations.
What is self-understanding?
a Childs cognitive representation of self
What is the initiative vs. guilt stage?
Erikson
children use their perceptual, motor, cognitive, language skills to make things happen. they are their own person
3rd stage.
3-5 years old
What is the industry vs inferiority stage?
Erikson
(mid-late childhood) industry expresses dominant theme of this period.
- children encouraged in their efforts to make, build and work develop greater sense of industry.
5-13 years
4th stage
What is self-esteem (self-worth)
global evaluations of the self.
- Low self esteem implicated in obesity, anxiety, depression, suicide, drug use, delinquency.
- may come from poor caregiver attachment
- to improve – praise for performance.
What is self concept?
domain specific evaluations of the self.
What is self efficacy?
belief that one can master a situation and produce a favourable result
what is self-regulation?
deliberate efforts to manage one’s behaviour, emotions, thoughts; increased social competence/acheivement
What is perspective taking?
process involved in assuming the perspecitive of others and understanding their thoughts / feelings
- involves understanding joint commitments
- understanding that people don’t always give accurate reports of their beliefs (they tell lies)
- improvements in cognitive inhibition and cognitive flexibility are key *****
What is gender identity?
sense of being male or female, which most children acquire by the time they are 3 years old
what are gender roles/
set of expectations that describe how females or males should think, act, and feel
What is social role theory?
a theory of gender in which gender differences result from the contrast roles of women and men
what is phychoanalytic theory (in terms of gender theory)
stems from Freud’s view that the preschool child develops a sexual attraction to the opposite sex parent.
what is social cognitive theory?
a theory of gender that states chilrends gender development occurs through observation / imitation of what other people say;; rewarded and punished for gender appropriate and gender inappropriate behaviour.
Define: Mothers’ socialization strategies
in many cultures, mothers socialize their daughters to be more obedient and responsible than their sons.
- also place more restrictions on their daughters’ autonomy
Describe Fathers’ socialization strategies
more attention to their sons than daughters; engage in more activities with sons; push intellectual development
What is gender schema theory?
children become aware of gender roles and develop a schema (a cognitive idea) of what is gender appropriate.
what is gender stereotypes?
broad categories that reflect societies impressions and beliefs about females and males.
Define both
emotion-coaching / emotion-dismissing
emotion-coaching = when parents view their children’s negative emotions as an opportunity for teaching.
emotion-dismissing = when parents deny, ignore or change negative emotions.
What is moral development?
development of thoughts, feelings and behaviours regarding rules and conventions about what people should do in their interactions with people
What are the 4 parenting styles?
define each one.
- Authoritarian. = restrictive, punitive style; exhort child to follow directions / respect parents
- Authoritative = encourages independence but still places limits / control on their actions
- Neglectful = parent is uninvolved in child’s life
- Indulgent = parent is highly involved with children, but places few demands or controls on them.
What is social cognition?
thoughts about social matters and perceptions.
Why is play important for children?
- play helps a child master anxieties and conflicts
- pent-up tensions related through play; learn to cope with problems
- for young children imaginary situation is real.
What are the 6 types of play?
define each
sensorimotor play = behaviour that allows infants to derive pleasure from exercising their sensorimotor schemes
practice play = repetition of new skills
pretence / symbolic play = occurs when the child transforms the physical environment into a symbol
social play = involves interaction with peers
constructive play = sensorimotor/practice play and symbolic representation.
games = activities engaged in for pleasure and have rules.
What are some reasons that play has declined?
increased weight of school
view that children learn best from adults (self directed actives with other children is a waste of time)
spread of fear - spread by media, experts (warning of dangers if you don’t watch children every moment)
What are some negative things that occur more frequently that comes from a lack of play in children’s lives?
increased anxiety and depression..
rise of narcissism / decline in empathy.
decline in sense that children have control over their own lives. (locus of control) have more of a sense that lives are controlled by fate, circumstance, ect.
decline in creative thinking
