Midterm 1 Flashcards
What are the three intertwining factors that make up the developmental process?
1) biological processes
2) cognitive processes
3) socioemotional processes
What are the 7 different kinds of developmental periods (times)?
1) prenatal (conception to birth)
2) infancy (birth to 18-24 months)
3) Childhood (24 months - 11 years)
4) Adolescence ( 10-12 – 18/22 years)
5) Early Adulthood ( 20-30’s)
6) Middle Adulthood (40-60)
7) Late adulthood ( 60 – X )
what are the characteristics of the prenatal period?
- tremendous growth!
- single cell into a complete organism
- before birth
what are the characteristics of infancy?
-psychological activities include:
- very dependant on caregiver
- psychological activities include:
- learning language
- symbolic thought
- coordination
What are the characteristics of childhood?
Early childhood (up until the age of 5 or 6) children learn to become more self sufficient, and care for themselves
-the development of school readiness skills, and social skills
- middle / late childhood:
- kids master basic skills such as:
- reading
- writing
- arithmetic
Kids are also exposed to the world outside of their family and prevailing culture.
What are the characteristics of Adolescence?
- rapid physical changes (height, weight, body contour, sexual characteristics)
- pursuit of independence and identity
- more logical thought - abstract / idealistic
- more time spent outside the family
- increased risk taking
What are the characteristics of early adulthood?
- establish personal / economic independence
- become proficient in career, select a partner, and start a family
what are the characteristics of middle adulthood?
- expanding personal/ social involvement and responsibility
- assisting next generation to become competent, mature individuals
- achieving / maintaining career satisfaction
What are the characteristics of late adulthood?
- life review
- retirement
- adjusting to new social roles involving decreasing strength and health
What are the four TYPES of age when it comes to the nature of development?
1) chronological age - years since birth
2) biological age - age in terms of biological health: functional capacities of vital organs.
3) psychological age - adaptive capacities compared with those of the same chronological age
4) social age - connectedness with others and the social roles individuals adopt
What are the three PATTERNS of aging? and how are they characterized?
1) NORMAL - (most individuals)
- psychological function peaks in early middle age
- relatively stable until the late fifties to early sixties
- modest decline through the early 80’s
- marked decline can occur as individuals near death
2) PATHOLOGICAL
- early old age
- may have mild cognitive impairment
- develop Alzheimers or have chronic dease that effects functioning.
- (being old for 50)
3) SUCCESSFUL
- physical, cognitive, and socioemotional development is maintained longer
- decline later in old age than is the case for most people
- ( being a young 70)
Developmental issues:
Describe what Nature and Nurture means
it refers to the extent to which development is influenced by nature and nurture
Nature - the organisms biological inheritance (DNA, genetics, ect)
Nurture - environmental factors that effect development.
Developmental issues:
describe ‘Stability and change’
the degree to which early traits/ characteristics persist or change over time.
e.i. shyness, agression, ect.
Developmental issues:
what is meant by ‘continuity and discontinuity’?
the degree to which development involves gradual change (nurture) versus distinct and more abrupt changes (nature)
example: does a a child learn to think abstractly over time, or once they reach a particular age does their cognitive ability change rapidly?
“did you slowly become who you are, or were there rapid changes in your life that changed you”.
what are the 5 steps of the scientific method?
1) conceptualize a process or problem to be studied
2) collect research information (data)
3) analyze the data
4) draw conclusions
5) replication
what is a theory?
is an interrelated, coherent set of ideas used to explain a phenomena and make preditcitons
what is a hypothesis?
specific assertions and predictions that can be tested
Theory’s of development:
describe the psychoanalytic theory.
who preposed this?
describes development primarily in terms of UNCONSCIOUS processes and are heavily influenced by emotion.
This is Freud’s theory.
- behaviour is merely a surface characteristic
- true understanding of development request analysis of symbolic meanings of behaviour and the deep inner workings of the mind
- development related to pleasure and SEXUAL IMPULSES
describe Eriksons Theory
PsychoSocial Theory
- human’s develop in psychosocial stages
- motivation is social
- change occurs diffring lifespan.
ERIKSON’S STAGES:
infancy = trust vs mistrust
toddlerhood = autonomy vs shame and doubt
preschool = initiative vs guilt
elementary school = competence vs inferiority
adolescence = identity vs role confusion
young adulthood = intimacy vs isolation
middle adulthood = generatively vs stagnation
late adulthood = integrity vs despair
Describe Piaget’s theory of development
Cognitive Theory of development
- children construct personal understandings (schemas)
- engaged in personal cognitive development
- age related stages with distinct thinking/ understanding
- child’s cognition is qualitatively different in each stage.
What are the 4 stages of Piaget’s theory of cognitive development?
1) sensorimotor stage (0-2)
2) preoperational stage (2-7)
3) concrete operational stage (7-11)
4) formal operational stage (11-adult)
describe Piaget’s sensorimotor stage
0-2
infant learns world through coordinating sensory experiences with physical actions.
learning:
object permanence + stranger anxiety
describe Piaget’s pre operational stage
2-7
child begins to represent the world with images.
child develops symbolic thinking.
milestones:
- pretend play
- egocentricism
limitation:
conservation
describe Piaget’s concrete operational stage
7-11 years old
- the child can now reason logically about concrete evens and classify objects into different sets
milestones:
- mathematic thinking
- conservation
limitation:
- abstract thinking
Describe Piaget’s formal operational stage
from 11 years of age through adulthood
the adolescent can reason in more abstract, idealistic, and logical ways
milestones
- abstract knowledge
- complex moral understanding
What is Vgotsky’s theory of development?
Sociocultural Cognitive Theory.
- culture and social interactions guide cognitive development
- inseparable from social / cultural activities
- social interactions with more skilled and peers in indispensable to their cognitive development
- adults provide “scaffolding” to assist children in their cognitive development
Theories of development:
Information processing theory
what’s it about?
- individuals manipulate information, monitor it and strategize about it
- cognitive theory that focuses on how information is encoded into our memory.
- its about how individuals perceive, analyze, manipulate, use and remember information.
- development is not stage-line
- individuals develop gradually increasing capacity for processing information, allowing them to acquire increasingly complex knowledge and skills
what is the BEHAVIOURAL & SOCIAL COGNITIVE theory?
when development results from behaviours learned through interactions with surroundings
describe Bandura’s Theroy
Theory of Social Cognitive Development
- environment, bevaiour and personal/ cognitive factors are the key factors in development
- cognitive processes are linked to environmental behaviour
- you partially create your own personality by thinking about and choosing how you will react in your environment
emphasizes the critical role of self-beliefs in human cognition, motivation, and behavior.
What is behaviourism?
behavioural & social cognitive theory
cares about behaviour because it can be measured.
development is observable behaviour learned through experiences with environment
What is operant conditioning?
Who theorized it?
Skinner
behaviour consequences (rewards or punishments) cause changes in the probability of behaviour
increases or decreases behaviour based on rewards or punishments.
What is the Ethological Theory of development?
- study of the behaviour of animals in their natural habitat
- stresses that behaviour is strongly influenced by biology (similar to evolutionary psych)
- characterized by critical or sensitive periods
- specific time frames during which presence or absence of certain experiences have a long lasting influence on individuals
What is Bronfenbrenner’s theory of development?
Bioecolocial theory…
environmental systems influence development through five systems:
1) microsystem
2) mesosystem
3) exosystem
4) macrosystem
5) chronosystem
What is an ecological theory of development?
emphasizes environmental factors.
This theory looks at a child’s development within the context of the system of relationships that form his or her environment
Bronfenbenner
What is the microsystem?
Bronfenbenner
a child’s immediate surroundings
setting in which the individual lives and their genetic makeup
e.g. the child’s family, school, peers, and neighborhood. Microsystems also include sports and activities, such as karate class or Girl Scouts
most direct interactions with social agents take place within the microsystem
individual is a passive recipient of experiences, but helps with the construct of the setting
What is a Mesosystem?
Bronfenbenner
The mesosystem is the interlinked system of microsystems in which a person participates—for example, linkages between family and school.
e. g. parent teacher conference
ex. children whose parents have rejected or neglected them may have difficulty developing positive relationships with other adults (such as teachers)
what is the exosystem?
Bronfenbenner
exosystem refers to the outside world that the developing person is not directly involved in, but influences them in some way.
exo = outside
system
(e.g. home experiences may be influenced by a parents work experiences)
What is a macrosystem?
Bronfenbenner
the culture than an individual is surrounded by
cultural beliefs, behaviours, ect.
What is a Chronosystem?
Bronfenbenner
The chronosystem considers how and when major events occur and how the timing of these events can influence a person’s life. These major events could be within the person’s life itself or external such as natural disasters, pandemics, or global civil rights protests.
What is the Humanistic theory of development
who was it proposed by
Maslow and Rogers
- reaction to behaviouristic and psychoanalytic approach
- holistic approach
- self improvement / self help
the idea of CONGRUENCY - Roggers thought the closer we are to our “ideal self”, the less incongruence we have and the better we feel.
Also addresses a hierarchy of needs (Maslow). Lower order needs must be met before upper needs..
e.g. you must have a safe place to sleep before you can work on yourself
PHYSIOLOGICAL. NEEDS - fundamental for survival. (food, water, ect)
HOMEOSTAIS - body’s internal monitor altering us to basic needs.
?????
pWhat is Congruency
Roggers thought the closer we are to our “ideal self”, the less incongruence we have and the better we feel
What is the hierarchy of needs pyramid?
Maslow, humanistic perspective
Bottom level: Physiological needs (food + drink)
Safety needs: security + psychological safety
belongingness and love needs : affiliation, acceptance, affection
Esteem needs (lower): praise from others
esteem needs (higher): self respect
Cognitive needs: knowledge, understanding
Aesthetic needs: beauty, symmetry
Top of pyramid = SELF ACTUALIZATION
(the lower half of the pyramid is a deficiency of needs.)
(higher on the pyramid is the needs that need to be met for growth )
What is positive psychology
who developed it?
Selingman and Csikszentmihalyi
- focuses on alternative methods of obtaining health.
- PERMA model (acronym for the five elements essential to wellbeing):
1) Positive emotions
2) Engagement
3) Relationships
4) Meaning
5) Accomplishment / Achievement
Penis Enlargements Recall Male Attention
What is Evolutionary Psychology?
biological approach to studying human behaviour
uses Charles Darwins theory of natural selection to explain how humans have evolved over time.
emphasizes the importance of adaption, reproduction, and survival of the fittest.
e.g. strong men would be considered attractive mates because they would protect the family, thus they reproduce and pass those characteristics onto their offspring.
What are three propositions made by evolutionary psychologist?
1) humans have an extended childhood compared to other animals.
- this allows the development of a larger brain
- allows gained life experience
- learn the complexities of human society
- time to learn and survive.
2) evolved “domain specific” psychological mechanisms for specific needs.
> mind is not one-size-fits-all.
> mind evolved in as “specialized modules” responding to historically and culturally repeated situations
3) evolved “mechanisms” which do not always adapt quickly or well.
> e.g. overeating… no longer are hunters expending energy to find foods.
What are some criticisms of evolutionary psychology?
- hindsight bias.
- “one sided evolutionism” (social behaviour is a product of biological characteristics).
> should adopt a more bidirectional view where the environment and biological conditions affect each other.
- evolution gives bodily structure and influences biology…. not behaviour.
What are Genes?
- short segments of DNA (hereditary information) that directs cells to reproduce and manufacture proteins.
- genes make proteins.
- genetic traits are retained in our DNA to be transmitted to new generations.
- DNA is inherited from all species that came before humans as well as the human “genetic code” inherited from parents.
What is the human genetic code?
prevents human fertilized eggs from become anything other than human.
99% of human genomes are identical. what makes us unique from each other is founding the 1%
What are chromosomes?
thread like structures made of up DNA
inherit 23 chromosomes from mother
and 23 chromosomes from father.
the nucleus of each human cell contains 46 chromosomes.
Each of your cells contains all of your genetic information.
people are made up of trillions of cells.
yea yea
What is DNA?
DNA is a complex molecule that has a double-helix shape. like a spiral staircase. and contains genetic information.
there are about 20,700 genes in the human body.
!
What is Mitosis?
the process of cell replication
- cell’s nucleus (including chromosomes) duplicate itself and divides
- two new cells are formed, each containing the same DNA as the original cell, arranged in the same 23 pairs of chromosomes.
What is Meiosis?
only forms egg and sperm cells… collectively called gametes.
- a cell of the testes or ovaries duplicates
(1 cell becomes 2 cells) - it then divides and both of the divided cells divide again
(2 cells becomes 4 cells) - each of the four cells has 23 chromosomes (half of the genetic material of the parent)
How does Fertilization happen?
- egg and sperm cells fuse to create a single cell called a ZYGOTE
- egg / sperm each contribute 23 unpaired chromosomes to form a set of 23 paired chromosomes.
- chromosomes are NOT exact copies of parental DNA, which increases genetic variability and most characteristics on which natural selection can operate.
What is a Genotype?
includes totality of individual genetic material including susceptibility genes and longevity genes.
a genotype is an individuals collection of genes.
What is a phenotype?
OBSERVABLE CHARACTERISTICS including physical characteristics (height, weight, hair color,)
and PSYCHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS (such as personality and intelligence)
Ghat are the 3 genetic principles?
1) THERE ARE DOMINANT AND RECESSIVE GENES.
- - one gene characteristic in a chromosome will dominate, passing its code on while the other is recessive. most mutant genes are recessive.
2) THERE ARE SEX LINKED GENES
- women have two X genes in they pair. if only one X gene mutates there is still a backup copy. men have only 1 Y and 1 X gene.
3) POLYGENETIC INHERITANCE
-inhereted characteristics are mostly determined by the interaction of different genes from ancestors and said to be polygenically determined.
“the genome is not static”
What is behaviour genetics?
- studies the influence of HEREDITY and ENVIRONMENT on what makes people so DIFFERENT
- environmental influences mental and physical can also change the functioning of genes we inherit at birth.
Heredity and environment correlations
- theorized by Scarr
1 PASSIVE GENOTYPE - ENVIRONMENT CORRELATIONS
- biological parents provide an environment which transfers their interests an inclinations to the child.
2) EVOCATIVE GENOTYPE-ENVIRONMENT CORRELATIONS - child’s characteristics elect certain types of environments (e.g. happy kids get more stimulation)
3) ACTIVE (NICHE-PICKING) GENOTYPE-ENVIRONMENT CORRELATIONS - child seeks environment that they find comparable and stimulating
Niche Picking = refers to finding an environment that is suited to one’s abilities often related to a genotype
What is Epigenetics?
study of changes in organisms caused by modification of GENE EXPRESSION rather than alteration of the genetic code itself.
- heredity/environment contributions are not additive
- genes may produce proteins during lifespan and in many environments affecting life trajectory
- Gene x Environment (G x E) interactions.
What is Conception?
- occurs at fertilization
- single spirm cell unites with an ovum (egg) in a female’s Fallopian tube
- during three trimesters of pregnancy, genetic code directs a series of changes in the fertilized egg.
What are the three trimesters of pregnancy?
- germinal
- embryonic
- fetal
What is the Germinal trimester of pregnancy?
conception to 4 weeks.
- less than 0.25cm
- spinal cord, nervous system, lungs, gastrointestinal system, heart
- amniotic sac envelops preliminary tissue of an entire body
- called a ZYGOTE
What is the Embryonic trimester of pregnancy?
- 16 weeks
- approximately 14cm
- 112g in weight
- strong heartbeat
- thin, transparent skin
- downy hair (lanugo) covers body
- fingernails and toenails forming
- coordinated movements
What is the Fetal trimester of pregnancy?
-28 weeks
- 36-43cm
- 1,100 - 1,400g weight
- adding body fat
- very active
- rudimentary breathing
what are the four phases of the prenatal brain in development?
- formation of the neural tube
- neurogenesis
- neural migration
- neural connectivity
What are hazards to prenatal development?
- Drugs/ Alcohol / Nicotine
- Environmental Hazards
- Maternal diseases
- Diet / Nutrition
- Maternal age
- Emotions / stress
What are the 3 stages of birth?
- uterine contrations - cervix dilates
- head moves through cervix and birth canal
- afterbirth - placenta emerges
What are the two patterns of growth development (physical)
- Cephalocaudal pattern. = head (cephalo) to tail (caudal)
2. Proximodistal pattern = centre outwards
what is the cephalocaudal pattern of growth?
means from head to tail
- head is often very large in newborn babies
- physcial growth and feature differentiation work their way from top to bottom
- same pattern occurs within the head area as the top parts of the head (eyes and brain) grow faster than the lower parts