midterm 2 Flashcards
1
Q
benefits of living in groups
A
safety, food, raising offspring
2
Q
costs of living in groups
A
visibility, competition, disease
3
Q
major predators to primates
A
humans, felids, raptors, snakes
4
Q
why are predators hard to study
A
not normally habituated, studies focus on the prey mostly
5
Q
benefit of group living: dilution
A
selfish herd effect; less likely to get picked off if you’re in the center of a group
6
Q
benefit of group living: vigilance
A
time spent scanning for predators lessens with more neighbors around (individuals). larger groups= more vigilance
7
Q
benefit of group living: active defense
A
promoting cooperation (b/w nonkin) to deter predators in mobbing.
8
Q
predation risk vs predation rate
A
risk: frequency of encounters with predators
rate: frequency of death from predation
9
Q
predation risk
A
high risk= large groups
10
Q
predation rate
A
large groups = higher rates, high rate -> small groups
11
Q
nairobi effect
A
when researchers are present, predators are less likely to attack
12
Q
predation and group composition: # of M
A
M help with vigilance and defence
high risk= high M:F ratio
13
Q
predation and group composition: polyspecific associations
A
cooperation b/w species when high risk of predation.
occurs in: cercopithecidae, calltrichidae, cebidae
ex. diana monkey/red colobus, ring tailed lemurs/verreaux’s sifaka
14
Q
polyspecific asociations in red colobus
A
are lower in forest strata, fewer glances around, more feeding on the ground. exhibit behaviour indicating they are safer with diana monkeys present
15
Q
predation
A
species 1: -
species 2: +
16
Q
parasitism
A
species 1: -
species 2: +
17
Q
competition
A
species 1: -
species 2: -
18
Q
mutualism
A
species 1: +
species 2: +
19
Q
ammensalism
A
species 1: 0
species 2: -
20
Q
commensalism
A
species 1: 0
species 2: +
21
Q
ways of parasite transmission
A
substrate, aggression, grooming, water, sex, vectors, air
22
Q
disease risk theories
A
- disease risk increases with terrestriality because of soil born parasites NOT TRUE
- disease risk increases with group size and population density NOT TRUE
- disease risk increases with promiscuity and STDs TRUE
23
Q
food as a selective pressure
A
- satisfy nutritional requirements
maintain condition and nutritional balance - maximize nutritional gain
maximize net energy gain and fitness
24
Q
primate diet requirements
A
carbs, protein, fats/oils, minerals/vitamins, water avoid toxins (caffeine, tannins, alkaloids)
25
optimal foraging definition
maximize quality and amount of food
| minimize travel/search time, processing, digestion, competition
26
captivity vs wild: food
captivity: more food= more babies
baboons: grow faster, reach sexual maturity earlier
27
4 factors determining how much food is required
active metabolism, basal metabolic rate, growth rate, reproductive effort
28
primate dentition
incisors, canines, premolars, molars
29
5 major food types in primates and examples
frugivory (chimps), folivory (mountain gorilla), gramnivory (seeds; saki monkey), insectivory (tarsier), gummivory (pygmy marmoset)
30
fruits arose when
65mya
31
bananas
highly digestible, infinite pulp to seed ratio
32
wild fruits
usually low pulp to seed ratio, dry, fibrous and strong tasting
33
endozoochory
evolved to be eaten (wild fruits)
34
main edible nutrient in fruits
sugar
35
co-evolution of fruits and primates
most trees have fruits that are dispersed by frugivores
36
frugivores (biomass)
primates comprise 25-40% of frugivore biomass in tropical forests
37
fruit toxins
some fruits are toxic to some and not others
38
digestive adaptations to frugivory
large, broad incisors; low cusped, flat molars; large but unspecialized digestive system
39
leaves
main fallback food for frugivorous primates, preferred food for other primates
40
leaves and folivory
adapted to deter folivory: mature leaves are tough (high fiber), toxins and tannins
41
main edible nutrients in leaves
soluble and insoluble carbs, protein
42
insoluble fiber
cellulose: basic structural component of plant walls
indigestible alone, but fermentable by microbial enzymes
food source for animals that harbor anaerobic bacteria (colobines, gorillas, howler monkeys)
43
digestive adaptations to folivory
large body size, small incisors, sharp shearing crests on molars, enlarged and well dev'd digestive systems
44
colobine gut anatomy
4 part stomach for microbial fermentation
45
gut kinetics
speed of digestion; frugivores are faster than folivores
46
toxins (qualitative defense)
widespread, protective "secondary compounds", energetically costly to detoxify
example: nitrogen containing compounds, terpenoids, phenolics
47
tannins (quantitative defense)
widespread in leaves and unripe fruits, bind to useful proteins and precipitate them (loss of food protein, enzyme function and mucoproteins)
48
main edible nutrients in seeds
lipids, protein
49
seeds
protected by shell/ toxins, specialization needed to crack nuts
50
dental adaptations to durophagy (seeds)
thick enamel
51
main edible nutrients in insects
lipid, protein
52
problem with insect eating
hard to catch but easy to digest
53
adaptations to insectivory
large canines and sharp cusps, short and simple gut, longer/taller teeth and higher cusps than frugivores (more grinding/ crushing/ shearing than frugivores)
54
main edible nutrients in gum
rich in fiber
55
adaptations to gummivory
long, robust incisors; exceptionally large colons and cecums (due to to reliance on fermentation of long chain carbs)
56
Liem's paradox
species often prefer not to eat the foods to which they are specifically adapted for
57
feeding adaptations for preferred/ not preferred foods
adaptations are for the fallback foods
58
society vs flock
society: social relationships matter
flock: anonymous
59
types of societies
troops and fission-fusion
60
troops
predictable membership: all together all day
| gorilla, savanna baboons, white-faced capuchins
61
fission-fusion
predictable community, unpredictable parties: atomistic parties (down to one), molecular parties (down to sub-group)
atomistic ex.: chimps, spider monkeys
molecular ex.: hamadryas baboons, geladas
62
social structure of societies
traits of individuals (dominance hierarchies, relationships, kinship and alliances)
63
social organization of societies
traits of the group (group size, stability, inter-group relations)
64
1960s ecology
diurnal primates live in groups, nocturnal are solitary
| savannah primates live in bigger groups than forest primates
65
1970s ecology
food distribution, abundance, quality --> optimal foraging F strategy --> F distribution, sociality -> M distribution and sociality
66
2 types of feeding competition
scramble: increasing the group size results in less food for everyone, success depends on collecting lots of small pieces (magabeys)
contest: dominants get more, subordinates get less, success depends on fighting and status, ressource is monopolizable (red colobus)
67
competition for food definition
reduced feeding efficiency due to presence of others (determined by nature of ressources)
68
frugivore competition
tend to suffer from scramble comp.
69
scramble comp. and group size
more intense scramble comp. leads to smaller groups
70
optimal group size hypothesis
intermediate group sizes should be associated with better individual feeding success (higher RS, lower stress)
71
phylogenetic inertia
constraints on behaviour due to similar ecological adaptations and similar constraints other than ecology
72
social integration and survival
stronger and more stable bonds = more likely to live longer
73
social bonds in humans
F tend to invest heavily in few, high quality, time consuming friendship
M prefer lower investment per group member and higher group cohesion
74
FF bonds
defense against M, competition w other F
75
FF bonds in olive baboons
agonistic relationships among F have few reversals
76
importance of kin in FF bonds (yellow baboons)
sociality index... F form kin clusters, M not really
77
FF bonded group: rank
stable dominance hierarchy, few reversals
child F inherit rank
higher rank = higher feeding success and RS
78
FF bonded group: coalitions
biased towards kin
79
FF bonded groups: rank reversals
b/w families more salient than within families
80
sociable moms
infants live longer
81
coalition vs alliance
coalition: an interaction (short term), 3rd party intervention is most common
alliance: long term relationship
82
agonistic interactions and dominance
dominant: winner of fight or approach-retreat
83
chimp dominance display
erect hair, bipedal
84
MM bonds in use
to defend against other group, against group members
| only common in a few species
85
M/F conflict of interest in chimps (reproduction)
F: create paternal confusion
M: sire offspring
86
M mate guarding in chimps
maintain close proximity, chase away other M, intimidate F
| M chimps exchange political support for mating access
87
assamese macaques bonds
F philopatric, M disperse, nonkin M form close social bonds (helps w alliances and dominance status, and RS)
88
MF constraints in bonds
sex-biased dispersal does not allow kinship bonds, M RS is increased through limiting associations with F after fertilization
89
M benefits to MF bonds
increased opportunities for future mating, increased social support
90
F benefit to MF bonds
help w offspring, access to resources, protection (aggression and infanticide)
91
MF friendships (baboons)
over 90% of F have at least one friend, M rank and motherhood determine friendships. Friendships are defined by breaks in frequency distribution of proximity scores
92
Hinde Index
A: approach, W: withdraw
Af/ (Af+Am) - Wf/ (Wf+Wm)
+= F maintains relationship
-= M maintains relationship
93
presence of infants in friendships
w infant = more time w friends
94
use for baboon friendships
chacma: buffer against infanticide
yellow: buffer against infanticide and F aggression
95
methods of primate behaviour (captivity and wild)
captivity: experiments and observation
wild: field study
96
what is a hormone
chemical messenger produced by endocrine system
97
2 types of effects of hormones
organizational: long term, structural, developmental changes, usually irreversible
activational: short term, temporary effects, in mature individuals, neurotransmitters
98
2 types of hormones
steroids: sex hormones (estrogens and androgens), glucocorticoids (cortisol)
Peptides: insulin
99
where are steroid hormones found in the body
circulate in blood, found in feces and saliva
100
2D:4D
2nd and 4th digit. 4th digit has more steroid receptors than 2nd.
2D<4D= M
2D>=4D =F
101
prenatal androgen exposure (PAE)
lower 2D4D ratio, adapted to mating systems (higher if more M aggression, higher in nonpairs than pairs)
102
PAE and aggression
intensity not frequency of aggression that is correlated w PAE
103
PAE in various species
F cercopithecines: high dominance rank = high PAE
M cercopithecines: high dominance rank = high PAE
Bonobos, chimps, humans: C have higher PAE than B/H
104
food and RS success
F RS is limited by food access
105
C-peptide measurements
Insulin regulates glucose use, C-peptide shows how much insulin is being produced
106
C-peptide surprise (chimps)
high ranking M have lower c peptide levels (more energetically stressed). High ranking F are less energetically stressed than low rank F
107
why are dominant M chimps more energetically stressed
they are more aggressive (unstable hierarchies contribute to more aggression)
108
baboon study (stress)
lower ranking animals have more stress -- except alpha M who is the most stressed; in both stable and unstable hierarchies, associated w fighting and mating. high rank= high RS at expense of health
109
M dominance and testosterone
M RS is limited by access to F, fights (more muscle...more F)
110
challenge hypothesis
testosterone should be at its peak when challenged the most to promote aggressive response
111
2 predictions to challenge hyp.
1: M should show increased testosterone during peri-ovulatory period of parous F
2: this rise in testosterone should be related to increased aggression not rise in copulations
112
testosterone in ring tailed lemurs
higher in M even though F are dominant
113
testosterone in F baboons
higher ranking F have more testosterone than low rank (exhibit more aggression, compete for status)
114
territoriality hypothesis
territoriality occurs if home range is economically defensible (d=day range, d'= diameter of home range, d/d' >1 =territorial)
115
what do groups fight over
resources, mates, status
116
F defense hypothesis
M are primarily concerned w defending F in IG conflicts
prediction 1: M aggression during IG intrxn should increase when sexually receptive F are present
prediction 2: higher ranking M should be more active in defense
117
resource defense hypothesis
M can benefit from defending territories that are important to F RS
prediction 1: spatial patterning in IG intrxn
core=win, edge=lose (home field advantage)
118
F participation in IG intrxns
F participation is high in F philopatric species,
| low in M philopatric species
119
intergroup dominance hypothesis
intergroup dominance promotes fitness through access to land and F
120
conflict in white faced capuchins
winners are closers to home range and larger groups
| losers: travel faster, avoided borders, fed badly
121
conflict in wedge-capped capuchins
linear dominance hierarchy among groups (determined by group size (# of M)), more dominant groups= access to better fruit trees, less dominant= more time foraging= lower RS
122
conflict in japanese macaques
winners got access to food, losers were displaced. larger groups had better RS
123
killing in troop living species
rare, little contact aggression, few coalitionary attack (groups are of similar size)
124
lethal raiding
only found in species with parties
125
imbalance of power hypothesis
fission-fusion --> varying subgroup size --> asymmetrical distribution of power (lost cost aggression)
126
imbalance of power hypothesis predictions
1: power asymmetry b/w opponents promotes attack
2: power symmetry suppresses attack
3: victims of aggression tend to be M
4: IG dominance= more resources
127
chimp IG intrxns
F benefit from access to resources, M benefit from access to F.
F don't participate in conflict directly, but encourage M
