midterm Flashcards
Cluster sample
a sample that is used when no list of elements exist
Convenience sample
sample is simply convenient to the researcher
Disproportionate sample
when elements are overrepresented or underrepresented
Element
referred to as case and is about which information is collected (unit of analysis)
Sampling unit
like an element, but can be a cluster or group
Sample bias
bias occurring whenever some (key) elements of a pop. are systematically excluded from a sample
Nonprobability sample
each element in the total population has an unknown probability of being selected
Snowball sampling
respondents identify others who might qualify for inclusion in the study
Purposive sampling
with much discretion from the researcher, the goal is to study a “diverse” and (usually) limited number of observations from the population without a requirement for representativeness
probability sample
elements are divided into groups based on one or more characteristic
Simple random sample
Each element has an equal chance of being selected
Stratified sample
A probability sample in which elements are divided into groups based on one or more characteristic
stratum
subgroup that shares one or more characteristics
Cause of effects approach
Starts with outcomes and works backwards to the cause
Classical randomized experiment
random assignment of subjects between control and experimental group with a pretest and posttest
Control group
does not receive treatment
Correlation
a statement that two things are systematically related
Demand characteristics
aspects of the research situation that cause participants to guess at the investigator’s goals and adjust their behavior or opinions accordingly
Effects of cause approach
Starts with a potential cause and works forward to examine its impact on the outcome
Experimental effect (aka program impact)
the portion of an outcome change that can be attributed uniquely to a program
Experimental mortality
the differential loss of subjects from experimental and control groups that affect the equivalency of groups
External Validity
The extent to which the results of a study can be generalized across populations, times, and settings
Internal validity
The ability to demonstrate the manipulation or variation in the independent variable actually causes the dependent variable to change
Large N cases
quantitative research in which the researcher examines many cases of a phenomena
Selection bias
picking subjects according to a criterion and not independently
Small N studies
researcher examines one or a few cases of a phenomenon
Covert observation
observations in which the observer’s presence or purpose is kept secret from those being observed
Direct observation
actual observation of behavior
Document analysis
heavily reliant of recordkeeping by govt and private orgs
Elite interviewing
is the use of interviewing to glean information from elites/individuals with special knowledge about topics or events
Episodic record
not part of an ongoing systematic recordkeeping effort
Erosion
Erosion- traces measuring wear/depletion/ reduction
Accretion
traces measuring accumulation/growth/ progress
Ethnography
a type of field study in which the researcher is deeply immersed in the place and lives of the people being studied
Field studies
open ended and wide ranging observation in a natural setting
First hand observation
researcher observes the actual behavior or trace evidence of the behavior
Indirect
researcher collects physical traces of a behavior
Informed consent
the principle that researchers must obtain the freely given consent of human subjects before they participate in a research project
Institutional review board
Federal regulations, universities, and other organizations require that faculty and students researchers to submit research proposal involving human subjects
Interview data
data that is collected from responses to questions posted by researcher
Nonparticipant observation
observation of activities, behaviors, or events in which the researcher does not participate
Overt observation
observation in which those being observed are informed of the observer’s presence and purpose
Participant observation
observation in which the observer becomes a regular participant in the activities of those being observed
Reactivity
effect of data collection method itself on the phenomenon being measured
Running record
materials collected systematically across time (govt or private)
Secondary data
are used by the researcher but collected by someone else
Structured
fixed-item, pre-categorized responses asking identical questions to each respondent
Unstructured (aka open-ended)
process allowing for completely inductive and tailored to each participant’s experience
Written record
documents, reports, statistics, manuscripts, photographs, audio recording, and other recorded materials available and useful for empirical research
Case studies
comprehensive and in-depth qualitative studies of contemporary, real-life events
Idiographic case selections
often more about the researcher’s prerogative
Deviant Case
exhibits all factors to lead to an outcome, but the outcome does not occur
Method of agreement
for a property to be a necessary condition, it must always be present if the effect is present
Method of difference
two or more instances of an event (effect) are compared to see what they all do not have in common. If they have all but one thing in common, that one thing is identified as the cause
Necessary cause
conduction must be present for the outcome to occur
Sufficient cause
a condition with which the outcome is always found
Process tracing (deductive)
a causal mechanism is traced from causal condition to final outcome
