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Brain and Behaviour > Midterm > Flashcards

Midterm Flashcards

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The Brain flashcards
1
Q

Brain

A

(encephalon) is part of the CNS encapsulated within the cranium

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2
Q

Spinal cord

A

part of the CNS that lies within the spinal canal (within the vertebral column) and terminates at the level of the second lumbar vertebra

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3
Q

Cranial nerves

A

series of nerves emerging from the brain, part of the PNS

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4
Q

Spinal nerves

A

series of nerves emerging from the brain, part of the PNS

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5
Q

Somatic nervous system

A

part of the PNS, conveys and processes sensory information, provides motor control for voluntary muscles

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6
Q

Autonomic nervous system

A

part of the PNS, conveys and processes sensory information, provides motor control for voluntary muscles

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7
Q

Sympathetic system

A

part of the ANS, responsible for general arousal, activation, and fight-or-flight

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8
Q

Parasympathetic system

A

part of the ANS, responsible for relaxation and long-term body homeostasis

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9
Q

Maintained activity of one system will produce a…

A

compensatory overshoot when the stimulation ceases or fatigues from prolonged stimulation

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10
Q

Enteric nervous system

A

Contains 500 million neurons that reside along the gastrointestinal tract, it does not receive direct CNS input and is thought to function independently

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11
Q

Brain volume

A

1300 cubic cm

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12
Q

Cerebrum

A

part of the brain split into two cerebral hemispheres separated from each other by a longitudinal fissure

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13
Q

Brain stem

A

comprises the midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata

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14
Q

Forebrain

A

largest part of the CNS in humans, divided into the telencephalon and dienchephalon

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15
Q

Telencephalon

A

“end brain” this is the two cerebral hemispheres, the cerebral cortex, and a number of subcortical structures

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16
Q

Diencephalon

A

“between brain” includes the thalamus and hypothalamus

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17
Q

Mesencephalon

A

“middle brain” is a short narrow region connecting the forebrain and the hindbrain

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18
Q

Metencephalon

A

“hind brain” composed of the pons and cerebellum

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19
Q

Myelencephalon

A

“marrow brain” medulla

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20
Q

Mesencephalon and myelencephalon

A

form a connection between the forebrain and spinal cord

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21
Q

Neuraxis

A

the long, t-shaped axis through the brain

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22
Q

Ontogenic

A

time-related

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23
Q

Saggital plane

A

divides the brain into two symmetrical halves

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24
Q

Coronal plane

A

a vertical place passing through both ears

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25
Q

Axial plane

A

divides the brain into a top and bottom half

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26
Q

Rostral-caudal

A

front-to-back

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27
Q

Dorsal-ventral

A

top-to-bottom

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28
Q

Medial-lateral

A

middle-to-side

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29
Q

Cephalic flexure

A

causes a bending in the midbrain-diencephalic junction

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30
Q

Anterior, posterior, superior, inferior

A

in front of, behind, above, below

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31
Q

How much of the brain is extracellular?

A

15 to 25 percent

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32
Q

Neurons

A

10x10^-6m in diameter, the basic unit of signalling in the nervous system

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33
Q

Dendrite

A

Receives most inputs to the cell

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34
Q

Purkinje cells

A

in the cerebellum, can have as many as 10,000 dendrites

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35
Q

Soma

A

cell body

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36
Q

Axon

A

carries most outputs

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37
Q

Action potentials

A

The patterns of pulses between neurons

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38
Q

Most mammalian neurons are-

A

multipolar, meaning they have several axons and dendrites arising from the cell body

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39
Q

Synapses

A

carry information from the axon terminal of one neuron to the dendrites of the next neuron

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40
Q

Neurotransmitters

A

chemicals that mediate rapid inter cellular communication

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41
Q

Glutamate and GABA

A

the most common neurotransmitters, they comprise 30% of the brains neurotransmitters

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42
Q

Serotonin, dopamine, and noradrenaline

A

each less than 5% of total synapses

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43
Q

Acetylcholine

A

5-10% of synapses, is mostly obtained through diet, important part of myelin

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44
Q

Neuropeptides

A

long sequences of assembled amino acids

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45
Q

Gray matter

A

consists of neuronal cell bodies, dendrites, axon terminals, synapses, glial cells, and is highly vascularized

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46
Q

White matter

A

consists of bundles of axons, many of which contain myelin, no cell bodies so it’s less vascularized

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47
Q

Nuclei

A

groupings of neuronal cell bodies within the gray matter of the CNS

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48
Q

Cerebral cortex

A

a layer of gray matter on the surface of the cerebral hemispheres

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49
Q

Ganglia

A

groups of neuronal cell bodies within the PNS

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50
Q

Tracts

A

bundles of axon fibres in the CNS

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51
Q

Nerves

A

bundles of axon fibres in the PNS

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52
Q

Contralateral

A

refers to the opposite side (usually in reference to a lesion)

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53
Q

Ipsilateral

A

refers to the same side (usually in reference to a legion)

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54
Q

Afferent

A

pathways toward a structure

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55
Q

Efferent

A

pathways away from a structure

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56
Q

Neural tube

A

a specialized sheet comprised of cells that fold over to form the neural tube, from which the CNS arises

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57
Q

Congenital malformation

A

caused by a flaw in the process by which the brain is formed

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58
Q

Craniorachischisis totalis

A

“cleft skull and spine”, in which the brain and spinal cord appears externalized on the back surface of the head and body

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59
Q

Spina bifida

A

in which the caudal spinal cord is uncovered and open to the outside, can cause anencephaly

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60
Q

Anencephaly

A

“without brain”, in which most if not most of the cerebral hemispheres fail to develop, caused by spina bifidi

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61
Q

Specific gravity is higher for the-

A

left hemisphere, it contains more gray matter

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62
Q

Left planum temporale

A

5 time larger on the left in most people, plays a critical role in language

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63
Q

Individuals with perfect pitch-

A

have larger leftward symmetry and smaller right absolute size of their left planum temporale

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64
Q

Patients with scizophrenia often have-

A

enlarged right planum temporale and no leftward asymmetry, these differences might reflect the odd language patterns and symptoms of paranoia because of the right hemisphere’s involvement in emotion

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65
Q

The region of the temporal cortex lying ventral to the lateral fissure is larger on the right-

A

possible base for spatial visualizing during mathematical problem solving

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66
Q

Broca’s area

A

“frontal operculum”, organized differently on left and right side. More area visible on the cortical surface on the right. More in the sulci on the left

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67
Q

Broca’s area is more visible on the cortical surface on the right and more buried in sulci on the left, this corresponds with-

A

the left side affecting the production of grammar and the right side influencing the tone (timbre) of voice

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68
Q

Left cerebral hemisphere

A

organization & categorization of info into discrete temporal units, sequential control of finger, hand, arm, and articulatory movements, perception & labelling of material that can be coded linguistically

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69
Q

Right cerebral hemisphere

A

nonverbal awareness, perception of musical stimuli, identification of environmental and nonverbal sounds, analysis of geometric and visual space, facial and gesture recognition, visual imagery, emotion

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70
Q

Frontal lobe primary function?

A

motor, inhibition, language (expression), and antici… pation

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71
Q

During depression there is predominantly-

A

left hypofrontal activity, this means the person would have less emphasized ability to initiate activity and control thoughts

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72
Q

Parietal lobe

A

integration and awareness of body image and body boundary (touch, proprioception, and pain)

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73
Q

Occipital lobe

A

visual recognition and visual processing

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74
Q

Temporal lobe

A

language (reception), hearing , vestibular functions

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75
Q

Insular lobe

A

autonomic and visceral experiences

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76
Q

Cingulate-limbic lobes

A

sense of self, meaningfulness, emotion, memory, species-bonding behaviour

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77
Q

Basal ganglia

A

conscious/unconscious motor movements, includes caudate, putamen, globus palcidus

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78
Q

Hippocampus

A

gateway to memory

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79
Q

Amygdala

A

affect and meaningfulness

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80
Q

Meninges

A

A succession of the connective tissue membranes that envelop the brain and spinal cord

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81
Q

Dura mater, arachnoid mater, and pia mater

A

the three layers of the meninges from most dorsal to ventral

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82
Q

Falx cerebri

A

the dural partition between the two cerebral hemispheres, composed of the thickened and folded meningeal dura

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83
Q

Subdural hematoma

A

collection of blood in the arachnoid as a result of skull injury

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84
Q

Meningitis

A

inflammation of the meninges

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85
Q

Ventricles

A

fluid-filled cavities, through which cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) flows, within the brain

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86
Q

Lateral ventricles

A

a pair of horn-shaped caverns inside the cerebral hemispheres, running from the front of the brain to the back and curving around into the temporal lobe

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87
Q

Cerebral aqueduct

A

connects the third and fourth ventricle in the midbrain

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88
Q

Choroid plexus

A

Produces CSF at a total volume of about 70 to 160ml, lines ventricular walls

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89
Q

CSF composition can be affected-

A

during the course of disease, usually clear and colourless, but will turn cloudy when it contains too many white blood cells

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90
Q

Classical diseases

A

enlargement of lateral ventricles occurs in chronic schizophrenia and hydrocephalus

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91
Q

Chronic schizophrenia

A

associated with flat affect (poor emotional responses and withdrawal, not very responsive to medication

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92
Q

The vertebral arteries transform into-

A

basilar arteries (along the surface of the medulla)

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93
Q

The anterior region of the basilar artery bifurcates into the two-

A

posterior cerebral arteries (PCA)

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94
Q

The posterior cerebral arteries (PCA)-

A

supply the caudal medial surface of the hemispheres. the occipital, and ventral temporal lobes

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95
Q

Interference with the PCA produces-

A

visual anomalies (without unilateral loss of motor control), memory difficulties, and sudden falling without loss of consciousness

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96
Q

Stenosis

A

reduction in the size of a supplying vessel (can cause brain damage)

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97
Q

Occlusion

A

blocking vessel (can cause brain damage)

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98
Q

Haemorrhage

A

loss of blood from a damaged vessel (can cause brain damage)

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99
Q

Transient ischemic attack (TIA)

A

weakness or sensations on the side of body opposite to hemisphere where ischemia is occurring

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100
Q

If TIA symptoms last longer than 24 hours its called a-

A

cerebral infarction

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101
Q

Stroke

A

usually rapid onset of symptoms, experience psychological depression post-stroke

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102
Q

Hematosis

A

collection of blood due to vascular leakage

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103
Q

Parenchyma

A

brain proper, the neurons

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104
Q

Arteriousvenous malformations (AVM)

A

anomalous occurrences of anastomoses

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105
Q

Anastomoses

A

where arterioles are fused with other arterioles or venules

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106
Q

Most common place for AVMs

A

Parietal lobe

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107
Q

Basic premise of Neuroscience (fMRI) research

A

that portion of the brain that displays metabolic activity that is greater than the expected average will dominate the behavioural output of the organism

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108
Q

Physiological redundancy

A

more neurons are present than are required to maintain normal function

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109
Q

Overactivity of serotonin pathways within frontal-basal ganglia system is associated with-

A

obsessive compulsive disorder

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110
Q

Individual neurons or nerve cells are-

A

the basic units of the nervous system

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111
Q

How many neurons in the human brain?

A

100 to 200 billion

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112
Q

The neuron is composed of-

A

4 morphologically defined regions

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113
Q

Cell body (soma) (ch2)

A

average diameter is about 10 microns (10x10^-6m), which is the metabolic and genomic hub of the neuron

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114
Q

Dendrites (ch2)

A

branching processes that receive info from other neurons

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115
Q

Axon (ch2)

A

long cylindrical process that propagates info away from the cell body

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116
Q

Presynaptic terminals

A

end of the axon, specialized enlarged regions often terminating in vicinity of the dentries of another neuron

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117
Q

Presynaptic cell

A

neuron transmitting a signal

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118
Q

Postsynaptic cell

A

neuron receiving a signal

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119
Q

Synaptic cleft (synapse)

A

narrow space between the presynaptic and postsynaptic cells

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120
Q

Mitochondria

A

chief source of energy production in the cell through the generation of ATP

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121
Q

ATP-bound energy is essential for all cellular processes and is-

A

critical for maintaining the high levels of activity of nerve cells

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122
Q

Nissl bodies/substance

A

stacked ribosomes which synthesize large quantities of proteins, high concentration on the rough endoplasmic reticulum of neurons

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123
Q

The dominance of Nissl substance in neurons emphasizes-

A

the importance of protein synthessis to neuronal function

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124
Q

The entirety of the dendritic branches is called the-

A

dendritic tree or dendritic arbor

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125
Q

Since microstructure dictates microfunction-

A

the structural organization of the dendritic tree reflects the function of the neuron

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126
Q

Spines

A

tiny protuberances on the dendrites of neurons that increase the surface area of the receptive membrane of the neuron and is the site where axon terminals interface

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127
Q

Dendritic spines are-

A

dynamic and can be induced to growth with only 1 second of 400Hz stimulation

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128
Q

Spines swell and change in response to-

A

neurotransmitters, especially primary exitatory neurotransmitter glutamate

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129
Q

Changes in the numbers or shapes of spines-

A

are the microstructural correlates of learning and thinking

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130
Q

Action potentials-

A

transmissions of coded info in the form of electrical perturbations

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131
Q

The larger the diameter of the axon-

A

the faster the propagation of the action potential

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132
Q

Cytoskeleton

A

complex mesh of filamentous polymers within the interior of the cell

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133
Q

Myelin

A

covers most axons, enables rapid axonal conduction of action potentials along the axon

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134
Q

Oligodendrocytes

A

synthesize myelin in the CNS

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135
Q

Node of Ranvier

A

Separation between individual segments of myelin wrapping

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136
Q

Demyelinating diseases affect the-

A

myelinated axons in the PNS or CNS, but not both

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137
Q

Loss of myelin in the CNS can lead to-

A

multiples sclerosis

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138
Q

Multiple sclerosis

A

myelin produced by oligodendrocytes is disrupted as a result of autoimmune reaction resulting in multiple plaques of demyelinated white matter

139
Q

Charcot-Marie-Tooth Disease

A

damage is restricted to peripheral myelination only, leaving central myelin intact

140
Q

The most typical synapse interface is-

A

axodendritic synapse, between the axon of neuron I and the dendrite of neuron II

141
Q

Synaptic vessel

A

an organelle in the presynaptic membrane that contains and releases neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft in response to electrical activity

142
Q

Most drugs that influence the brain have chemical structures similar to the-

A

neurotransmitters, these drugs compete with them at the synapse

143
Q

Gap junctions

A

intercellular channels that allow direct diffusion of ions and small molecules between adjacent cells

144
Q

There are 5 to 10 times more-

A

glial cells than neurons

145
Q

Glial cell processes are connected in a-

A

vast syncytium, composed primarily of gap junctions

146
Q

Glial cells act as a-

A

potassium buffer within the extracellular fluid

147
Q

Electrical or epileptogenic focus-

A

area with chronic disruption in the levels of extracellular fluid

148
Q

Astrocytes

A

a type of glial cell, interface between neuron and blood supply, part of the blood-brain-barrier

149
Q

Oligodendrocytes

A

a type of glial cell, smaller than astrocytes, related to myelin formation

150
Q

Microglia

A

type of glial cell, phagocytosis of deteriorating myelin, immune-related function

151
Q

Most tumors are derived from-

A

astrocytes

152
Q

Chance of tumors occurring-

A

2 to 20 per 100,000

153
Q

Epilepsy is a dynamic process that-

A

can manifest itself in varying degrees of intensity at different times, rather than as one or more seizures of fixed origin

154
Q

Why does epilepsy exist?

A

it’s a natural consequence of the operation of the brain, experience is coded by cells that are very electrically labile and unstable

155
Q

Paroxysmal discharge

A

repeated, synchronous high amplitude changes in electrical activity that result in seizure

156
Q

If the seizure remains confined subcortically-

A

there may be no anomalous EEG pattern, only 50% of people with temporal lobe epilepsy show abnormal EEGs

157
Q

Sometimes the actual focus of the seizure may start in one part of the brain then-

A

generalize to other parts of the brain that can provoke the convulsion

158
Q

Generalized seizures

A

may be preceded by an aura and EEG recordings show a diffuse origin of electrical discharges in both hemispheres, includes absence and tonic clonic seizures

159
Q

Absence seizure

A

sudden onset, interruption of activites, blank stare, 1 to 30s, originates in the thalamus (usually)

160
Q

Tonic clonic seizure

A

“cry” or moan, patient lies rigid (tonic stage), small gusts of respiration (clonic stage), muscles relax, patient may enter a deep sleep

161
Q

Simple symptomology

A

without impairment of consciousness

162
Q

Complex symptomology

A

with impairment of consciousness

163
Q

If a seizure impairs consciousness, you are more likely to experience-

A

automatisms, coordinated involuntary movements

164
Q

Contusion

A

bruising

165
Q

Force distribution: damage can occur at the impact site or (more often)-

A

on the opposite side of the brain due to counter-coup forces

166
Q

Neuropsychiatric sequelae

A

symptoms that appear to be related to shaking injuries of the brain

167
Q

Postconcussional syndrome

A

a neuropsychiatric sequelae. symptoms: headache, dizziness, poor concentration, easily fatigues, alcohol intolerance, and attentional deficits

168
Q

Demyelinating disorders occur in-

A

the white matter

169
Q

Multiple sclerosis is the demyelinating-

A

in the cerebrum and spinal cord

170
Q

In females, multiple sclerosis symptoms-

A

decrease during the first part of pregnancy

171
Q

How many functions does the brain stem have?

A

four

172
Q

Brainstem provides transit for-

A

ascending pathways travelling to the thalamus and hypothalamus

173
Q

Cranial nerves III to XII are attached to the surface of the brainstem and-

A

convey specialized sensory, motor, and visceral information

174
Q

Brainstem supports integrative activities such as-

A

consciousness, the sleep-wake cycle, perception of pain, respiration and cardiovascular control (much of this is accomplished by the reticular core)

175
Q

The brainstem is the origin of several-

A

monoaminergic (serotonin, dopamine, noradrenaline/norepinephrine) neurons

176
Q

Corticospinal tract-

A

major pathway in the basilar portion, motor cortex, to spinal cord, responsible for voluntary motor control and movement

177
Q

How much of the corticospinal tract is crossed?

A

85-90%

178
Q

The pyramid-

A

(motor decussation) made of crossing fibres on the corticospinal tract

179
Q

Because of the decussation of the motor fibres at the pyramids-

A

one side of the brain is said to control the opposite side of the body for voluntary movements

180
Q

Inferior olive

A

lateral to the pyramids

181
Q

Obex

A

the point at which the fourth ventricle narrows into the central canal

182
Q

Area postrema

A

one of the periventricular organs (composed of special glial-like cells) it mediates nausea

183
Q

Mast-cells

A

contain histamine, make up the area postrema

184
Q

The inferior olive gives rise to-

A

climbing fibres that innervate the cerebellum. They provide a strong excitation signal when activated and it is believed they contribute to learning the timing of movements

185
Q

The primary function of the reticular core is to-

A

modulate levels of arousal with information ascending to the cortex and descending to the spinal cord

186
Q

Raphe nuclei

A

a series of different aggregates of serotonin (5HT) containing neurons that occupy the midline portion of the midbrain, pons, and adjacent medulla

187
Q

Destruction of the raphe nuclei can produce-

A

insomnia

188
Q

Tryptophan

A

sometimes used to ease sleep disorders

189
Q

Reticular activating system (RAS)

A

ascending projections to specific thalamic neurons that mediate arousal and wakefulness

190
Q

Bilateral damage of RAS projections can produce-

A

a state of coma!

191
Q

The descending projections (reticulospinal tracts) influence-

A

spinal reflexes, muscle tone, and motor activity

192
Q

Reticulospinal tracts may serve as an alternative to-

A

corticospinal (pyramind) tract that sends voluntary motor commands from the cerebral cortex to spinal motor neurons

193
Q

Parabrachial nucleus

A

in the pons and midbrain, carries info involved with the taste pathway, and it’s dense projections to the amygdala are thought to mediate the “liking” response to pleasurable flavours

194
Q

Pedunculopontine (PPN) nucleus

A

(in the pons) plays a role in motor function (planning of movement)

195
Q

Some of these neurons in the RAS contain acetylcholine (Ach) and control-

A

the generation of REM sleep!

196
Q

Locus coeruleus

A

major source of noradrenaline to the brain

197
Q

The only input from the prefrontal cortex to the locus coeruleus is-

A

from the prefrontal cortex (allows for self-evoking activation and monitoring of self and environment)

198
Q

Locus coeruleus has multiple functions-

A

dreams, and monitoring external and internal events and prepare the organism to cope with emergencies

199
Q

Cerebral peduncle

A

tegmentum and basilar portion of the midbrain

200
Q

Superior colliculus

A

“upper hill” complex multimodal (multi-sensory) integration center, controls saccadic eye movements (rapid movements of the eyes that dart from one region of interest to another)

201
Q

Inferior colliculus

A

“lower hill” major component of the auditory ascending relay

202
Q

Periaqueductal gray

A

nuclear region that contains a high density of opioid producing neurons that aid in pain suppresion

203
Q

Ventral Tegmental Area

A

plays an important role in the thought disorder component of schizophrenia

204
Q

Dopamine projections from the VTA to the nucleus accumbens is part of-

A

the natural reward/motivation circuit and is strongly linked to addiction

205
Q

Red nucleus

A

Lesions produce and intention tremor, low frequency tremor that is only present with voluntary movement

206
Q

Substantia nigra

A

comprised of the pars compacta (source of dopamine transmitted via nigrostriatal pathways to the striatum) and the pars reticulata

207
Q

Parkinsons disorder

A

fixed expression, pill-rolling tremor, resting tremor

208
Q

At least 80% of the SN pars compacta neurons must die before-

A

the clinical symptoms of Parkinsonism become apparent

209
Q

What are the specific nuclei of the midbrain?

A

superior colliculus, inferior colliculus, periaqueductal gray, ventral tegmental area, red nucleus, substantia nigra

210
Q

Dopamine receptors are modulated by-

A

female hormones

211
Q

Lesions of cranial nerves generally produce ipsilateral deficits with the exception of-

A

CNs II, CN III, and some components of CN VII, which produce contralateral deficits

212
Q

Hypoglossal complex (CN XII)

A

lesion results in unilateral tongue paralysis, the tongue deviates to the paralyzed side

213
Q

Vagal complex (CNX)

A

contains the cardiac-inhibitory center, nucleus ambiguous, and nucleus solitarius (nucleus of the solitary tract)

214
Q

Cardiac-inhibiting center

A

source of parasympathetic innervation, contributes to vasovagal syncope (painting). Lesions can cause tachycardia (increased heart rate)

215
Q

Nucleus solitarius

A

nucleus of the solitary tract, major source of the afferent taste pathway, innervation of taste buds of the epiglottis. Lesions can cause uncontrollable hiccups

216
Q

Lesions of the Vagus Nerve

A

Messed up voice, swallowing, breathing, heartrate

217
Q

Spinal accessory nerve (CN XII)

A

permits rotation and tilting of head, shrugging of shoulders

218
Q

Lesion of the accessory nerve

A

makes it hard to rotate your head and shrug your shoulders

219
Q

Glossopharyngeal complex (CN IX)

A

mediates taste sensation from the posterior one third of the tongue

220
Q

Lesions of the glossopharyngeal nerve

A

no taste in back of tongue, no gag reflex, no carotid sinus reflex

221
Q

Cochlear nuclei (VIII)

A

auditory processing

222
Q

Vestibular nuclei (VIII)

A

medial longitudinal fasciculus, visual image on retina despite body movement

223
Q

Nystagmus

A

to and fro eye movements, occurs with cerebellar problems, ethanol abuse, or labyrinthitis

224
Q

Facial complex (CN VII)

A

innervates muscles of facials expression and mediates taste sensation on anterior 2/3 of the tongue

225
Q

Lesions of facial nerve

A

Bell’s palsy, paralyzes facial expression, also possibly crocodile tear syndrome

226
Q

Trigeminal (CN V)

A

largest cranial nerve, provides major sensory innervation to part of the scalp, most of the dura mater, and the orofacial structures

227
Q

Trigeminal sensory pathway-

A

transits information related to touch, pain, and dermal sensation of the face

228
Q

Mastication

A

chewing

229
Q

Bruxism

A

teeth grinding

230
Q

Herpes zoster virus

A

shingles, results in sever pain (trigeminal neuralgia)

231
Q

Lesions of the trigeminal nerve

A

may develop sharp, agonizing pain over the distributions of one of the branches of the trigeminal nerve known as trigeminal neuralgia or tic doulourex

232
Q

The trochlear nerve (IV) innervates the-

A

superior oblique muscle

233
Q

The abducens nerve (VI) innervates the-

A

lateral rectus muscle

234
Q

The oculomotor nerve (CN III) innervates-

A

all remaining extraocular muscles

235
Q

The medial rectus and lateral rectus-

A

collectively move the eyeball in a horizontal place

236
Q

The superior rectus

A

elevates the eye (pupil up)

237
Q

The inferior rectus-

A

depresses the eye (pupil down)

238
Q

Diplopia

A

double vision caused by the paralysis of one or more extraocular muscles

239
Q

Lesion of the oculomotor nerve-

A

drooping eyelid, dilated pupil, unequal-sized pupils, pupil stuck at temple (external strabismus)

240
Q

Lesions of the abducens nerve-

A

horizontal diplopia (double vision)

241
Q

Lesions of the trochlear nerve-

A

vertical diplopia, eye moves down and out

242
Q

The trochlear nerve has the-

A

longest intracranial route

243
Q

Homeostasis

A

a set of physiological processes and behavioural actions that keep internal composition of the body steady or sufficiently so to support normal health

244
Q

Hypothalamus

A

promotes homeostasis, can be seen as the great integrator of emotional experience through modulating visceral and somatic outputs

245
Q

The pituitary connects with the-

A

infundibulum or pituitary stalk

246
Q

Medial forebrain bundle

A

sends information to control centers in the brainstem

247
Q

Hypothalamus controls-

A

temperature, blood pressure, daily rhythms, energy metabolism, reproduction, emergency

248
Q

Hypothalamus is a major correlate of-

A

instinctual behaviours (feeding, feeling, fighting, mating)

249
Q

The release of hormones into both the hypothalamus and general circulation allows for-

A

coordinate hormonal regulation of motor, autonomic, emotional, and cognitive processes in service of complex goals such as hydration or maternal care

250
Q

Although the hypothalamus occupies a very small volume, control of the body is completed through a-

A

cascading principle: hypothalamus to pituitary to blood to organs

251
Q

Preoptic divisions

A

includes the anterior nucleus, medial preoptic area, and lateral preoptic nucleus

252
Q

Anterior nucleus

A

act to prevent a rise in body temperature by activating processes that favour heat loss

253
Q

Damage to the anterior nucleus causes-

A

hyperthermia (elevation in body temperature)

254
Q

Medial preoptic area

A

contain gonadotropin-releasing hormones, which regulate reproductive behaviour. Sexually dimorphic in rats

255
Q

The third intersititial nuclei of the anterior hypothalamus-

A

smaller in homosexual men

256
Q

Lateral preotic nucleus

A

important sleep-promoting area! lesions produce insomnia :(

257
Q

Anterior or Supraoptic Division

A

contains suprachiasmatic nucleus, paraventricular nucleus, and supraoptic nucleus

258
Q

Supraoptic nucleus

A

internal master clock of the circadian timing system

259
Q

Paraventricular nucleus

A

synthesize and release oxytocin

260
Q

Supraoptic nucleus

A

synthesizes vasopressin (for water conservation). lesions produce diabetes insipidus

261
Q

Tuberal division

A

contains ventromedial hypothalamus and lateral hypothalamus

262
Q

Hyperphagic

A

eating excessively

263
Q

Mammillary body

A

controls memory

264
Q

Wernicke-Korsakoff encephalopathy

A

a condition involving marked anterograde and retrograde amnesia

265
Q

Pituitary gland is connected to the hypothalamus by the-

A

infundibulum

266
Q

Pituitary consists of-

A

two parts

267
Q

Adenohypophysis

A

releases anti-inflammation and immunosuppressive chemicals like cortisol

268
Q

ACTH (adrenocorticotrophic hormone)

A

an important neuropeptide that stimulates the adrenal cortex to release glucocorticoids

269
Q

Cortisol

A

glucocorticoid, anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive

270
Q

Limbic system

A

several large agregates of brain nuclei within the depths of the cerebrum, crucial for normal human behaviour: memories, personality, thoughts, and emotions

271
Q

The limbic system (or limbic lobe of Broca) includes-

A

the cingulate and parahippocampal gyri, the amygdala, and the hippocampus

272
Q

James Papez proposed-

A

that the limbic lobe was organized as an anatomical substitute for drive-related and affective (emotional) behaviours

273
Q

Papez circuit

A

the cingulate gyrus and its widespread cortical connections are responsible for internal emotion, whereas the hypothalamus is responsible for outward emotions, this is basically correct but other structures are involved

274
Q

More recent conceptions of the limbic system include-

A

the cingulate gyrus, orbitofrontal and medial prefrontal cortex, perirhinal entorhinal, parahippocampal gyrus, and the hippocampus, and the amygdala

275
Q

Anterior cingulate

A

part of the limbic system, allows for mammals to engage in peer play and tactile contact, separates animals from lizards

276
Q

Septal nuclei or septum

A

part of the limbic system, electrical stimulation counters and inhibits aggressive behaviour and suppresses the expression of rage reactions following hypothalamic stimulation

277
Q

Lesions of the septal nuclei can produce-

A

a temporary and dramatic increase in aggressive behaviour

278
Q

Ventral Striatum

A

includes the nucleus accumbens and the substantia innominata (which includes the basal nucleus of Meynert)

279
Q

Nucleus Accumbens

A

part of the ventral striatum, associated with substance abuse and addiction, such as alcoholism

280
Q

Substantia Innominata/The Basal Nucleus of Meynert

A

part of the ventral striatum, massive death in cells here occurs in Alzheimer’s disease

281
Q

Uncinate fits

A

Seizures precuded by olfactory auras (like smelling burnt toast), fits occur in the uncus

282
Q

Unicinate fasciculus

A

An association bundle that connects the orbitofrontal cortex with the anterior temporal lobes and amygdala

283
Q

Parahippocampal oculus

A

involved with vigilance and is one of the central sources of panic attacks

284
Q

Indusium griseum

A

passes through the cingulate and entorhinal area, gateway to the hippocampus, plays a functional role in the developing fetus, embryonic equivalent of the adult hippocampus

285
Q

Anterograde amnesia

A

The person cannot remember events/details since the time of the damage

286
Q

Retrograde amnesia

A

Person cannot recall memory before the incident

287
Q

The hippocampus is considered the gateway to declarative memory (which is-

A

the ability to remember when, what, and where you learned

288
Q

Besides memory, the hippocampus is involved with-

A

dreaming and seizures

289
Q

Hippocampal neurons exhibit a-

A

slow-wave theta (4-7 Hz) activity during arousal, or when presented with noxious or novel stimuli

290
Q

Near-death experiences involve-

A

hypoxic-induced electrical alterations of the hippocampus

291
Q

The amygdala attaches-

A

meaningfulness and affect to experience

292
Q

Among humans, fear and rage responses are the most common manifestations of-

A

amygdala electrical stimulation

293
Q

According to Paul Maclean, the amygdala is involved with-

A

self-preservation

294
Q

The amygdala modulates-

A

hypothalamic activity, including immune function

295
Q

The amygdala is prone to kindling (which is-

A

brief 1-second electrical stimulation when applied once a day for several days produces a seizures (drugs like cocaine can stimulate this process)

296
Q

Kluver-Bucy Syndrome or social-emotional agnosia-

A

ablation of the amygdala resulting in hyperphagia, hypermetamorphosis, reduced aggressiveness and fearfulness, low social interest, hyperorality, and hypersexuality

297
Q

“cosmic wow”

A

intense meaningfulness evoked by stimulating the amygdala

298
Q

Electrical stimulation of the mesiobasal temporal lobe

A

produces very meaningful hallucinations and out-of-body experiences

299
Q

Temporal lobe pattern of personality

A

sensitivity to smells, hyperreligiosity, delusions with no evidence of a thought disorder, memory blanks

300
Q

There is no single component of mystical, parapsychological, or religious experience that cannot be evoked by-

A

Mesial temporal lobe stimulation

301
Q

Cortical expression

A

conscious awareness of one’s self, both internal and in relation to the environment

302
Q

How many neurons does the cerebral cortex contain?

A

Roughly 25 billion

303
Q

How thick are the cerebral cortices?

A

1.5 to 4.5mm thick

304
Q

What is the isocortex?

A

6 layered neocortex, part of the cerebral cortex

305
Q

Cytoarchitecture differences

A

Differences in cell shape

306
Q

Brodmann numbers or areas

A

areas within which cell shapes are similar

307
Q

The neocortex is organized in-

A

six horizontal laminae (layers) oriented parallel to the cortical surface

308
Q

Collumns/modules extending from the pia surface to the white matter-

A

long 3D slabs up to 0.5mm in width

309
Q

Superior longitudinal fasciculus

A

largest of the association bundles, connects the cortex of the frontal, parietal, occipital, and temporal lobes, it is involved in language processing

310
Q

The inferior longitudinal fasciculus

A

connects the temporal and occipital lobes

311
Q

Uncinate fasciculus

A

runs deep to the Sylvian fissure to connect the orbitofrontal lobe with the rostral part of the temporal lobe (amygdala/hippocampal regions)

312
Q

Cingulum

A

runs within the cingulate and parahippocampal gyri, connects the cingulate gyrus with the hippocampus

313
Q

Functional callosectomies

A

where the person cannot detect facial gestures, visuospatial patterns, emotional meanings, and innuendos

314
Q

Neocortical lobes

A

frontal, parietal, occipital, and temporal lobes, all part of the cerebral cortex

315
Q

Primary or receptive cortex

A

directly receives thalamic input, damage to these areas produce a loss of modality (blindness/deafness), information from here travels to the secondary (association) cortices

316
Q

secondary (association) cortices

A

daage to these areas usually produces agnosia

317
Q

Agnosia

A

person still detects the stimuli but does not recognize it, or the meaning of the stimulus

318
Q

Information from the secondary cortices travel to the-

A

tertiary (polymodal) cortices

319
Q

tertiary (polymodal) cortices

A

multimodal (multisensory) and involved with higher-order functions related to reasoning, thought, and language

320
Q

Occipital lobe primary function:

A

vision

321
Q

Input from the upper visual field terminates-

A

below the fissure and terminates near the temporal lobe

322
Q

Lesions in the temporal lobe that extend into the occipital cortex produce-

A

visual deficits along the upper visual field

323
Q

Input from the lower visual field

A

enters above the cacarine fissure (near the parietal lobe)

324
Q

Lesions in the parietal lobe that extend into the occipital cortex often produce-

A

visual deficits along the lower visual field

325
Q

Area 17 (primary visual cortex)

A

involves awareness of what is being seen

326
Q

Lesions of area 17

A

produce blindness

327
Q

Area 18, 19 (peristrate or extrastriate area, secondary association cortex)

A

involved with recognition of movement, depth, color

328
Q

Lesions of area 18, 19

A

produce visual agnosia (one can see an object but cannot recognize it)

329
Q

Stimulation of area 18, 19

A

Produces coloured images, stars, wheels, crosses

330
Q

Some lesions evoke hallucinations that involve-

A

perception of the mirror image of the self (much like OOBEs)

331
Q

Areas 1, 2, 3 (primary somatosensory cortex)

A

primary projection area for touch, proprioception, and pain; posterior (caudal) to the central sulcus

332
Q

Lesion of area 1, 2, 3

A

loss of ability to recognize position of body, estimate, weight, appreciate differences in temperature

333
Q

Input from body is represented as a

A

homunculus

334
Q

Areas 5, 7 (secondary association area)

A

allow recognition and understanding of body

335
Q

Lesions of areas 5, 7

A

Corticoasterognosis, loss of two-point discrimination, failure of body scheme

336
Q

Corticoasterognosis

A

can still feel an object with eyes closed but can’t recognize it, can’t recognize letter “written on skin”

337
Q

Area 39 (angular gyrus)

A

a tertiary cortex, involved with complex language function

338
Q

Alexia

A

inability to read

339
Q

Agraphia

A

inability to copy

340
Q

Finger agnosia

A

cannot identify which finger is being touched when eyes are closed

341
Q

Lesions of area 39 (angular gyrus)

A

produce alexia, agraphia, left-right confusion, and finger agnosia

342
Q

Area 40 (supramarginal gyrus)

A

tertiary cortex, involved with language and symbolic processing capacity

343
Q

Lesions of area 40

A

produce aphasia (deficits in understanding and expression by symbols and language)

344
Q

Lesions to areas 39 and 40 produce

A

Gertsmann syndrome

Brain and Behaviour (4 decks)

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