Midterm 1 Review Flashcards
Three components of social psychology:
Competent/self-efficacy, relatedness, autonomy
Social psychology is the scientific study of:
Social thinking, social influence, social relations
How we perceive ourselves & others
What we believe
Judgements we make
Our attitudes
are parts of which component of SP :
Social thinking
Culture & biology
Pressures to conform
Persuasion
Groups of people
are parts of which component of SP:
Social influence
Helping
Aggression
Attraction & intimacy
Prejudice
are parts of which component of SP:
Social relations
What examines how INDIVIDUALS feel, think, behave in social contexts.
SP
This explores the development, functioning, structure of societies:
Sociology
Examples of sociology
social institutions
Relationshis
Collective behaviour
This studies individual differences in characteristic patterns of thinking, feeling, & behaving
Personality Psychology
Varies with how we construe the situation:
Social behaviors
Social beliefs can be self-fulfilling:
True
Ethical dilemma helps see how people act in certain situations:
Yes
We construct our social reality:
Humans like to explain behaviour, Make it orderly, predictable, controllable: T/F
True
What are often powerful but sometimes perilous:
Social inuitions
Our intuitions are often wrong:
True
Over-trust our memory and Poor at predicting our emotional reactions:
Yes
People are created from biology & experience:
yes
What integrates social and biological perspectives to understand the bases of social & emotional behaviors.
Social neuroscience
What theory states that relatedness is a core psychological need:
Self-determination
Ways values enter social psychology:
Values influence research
Vary by time & culture
Analysis of data
The limbic system, amygdala, hypothalamus, ventral tegmental area (VTA) allow us to experience love. T/F?
True
People report being moderate procrastinators:
True
Examples of subjective aspect of science:
Culture (ex: dominant cultural narratives overshadow minority groups)
Social representation: Being overlooked or misrepresented
Forming concepts or
Hidden Values
Examples of forming concepts:
Labelling
Naturalistic fallacy
Labelling or value judgement refers to assigning specific tags or assessments to people or person based on perceived characteristics. Can be biased?
True
This refers to error of defining what’s good in terms of what is observable?
What typical is normal and normal is good.
Naturalistic fallacy
Two criticism of social psychology:
- Trivial b/c it documents the obvious.
- Dangerous b/c the findings could be used to manipulate people
What is the problem with common sense:
We invoke it after we know it
This bias refers to tendency to exaggerate an outcome, one’s ability to have foreseen it:
Hindsight bais
Process of a study:
Theory - hypothesis-Research (design)-Observation-theory (create/modify it)-hypothesis-research-observation and on
What is an integrated set of principle that explain and predict observed events:
Theory
Concerns with using a survey:
Unrepresentative samples
order of Qs
Response bias & social desirability
Wording of questions
Often correlational research may use survey and is cross-sectional study:
True
Correlation allows prediction but not causation:
True
Is a testable proposition that describe the relationship that may exist btw. events:
Hypothesis
Two types of research methods:
Correlational vs experimental
Advantage and dis. of correlational:
Adv: Often uses real-world settings
Dis: Causation often ambiguous
Adv. and dis. of experimental method:
Adv: explore cause & effect by controlling variables by RA
Dis: Important variables cannot be studied with this method
What are elements of research:
Research design (correlational or esxperimental)
Research methods (questionnaire or interviews, RA)
What is known as the great equilizer:
RA
When manipulation is not possible researchers use observational research methods T/F:
True
Methods in social psychology:
Lab/field experiments
Surveys & questionnaire (self-report)
Observational studies
Case studies
Meta-analysis
Interviews
Social network analysis
Experimental realism is important with minimized harm and demand.
yes
Social psychology experiments often operate in the ‘grey area’ btw. harmless and risky area.
Yes
Ethics principles:
Respect
Research merit & integrity
Justice
Beneficence
Non-maleficence
Issues with lab experiments:
Labs are controlled reality may not always reflect the real-world.
What term refers to when people see themselves as centre stage:
Spotlight effect (similar to ego-centric, imaginary audience)
What did Lawson study find out:
Students said 40% of students would remember the sweatshirt logo, but only 10% recalled.
Example of spotlight effect
What term refers to when we feel self-conscious we can worry being evaluated negatively:
Illusion of Transparency
Savitsky & Gilovich (2003) found out that:
Knowing about illusion of transparency can reduce effects of self-conscious.
What enables us to remember our past, assess our present, project our future:
Our sense of self
Components of the self:
Self-esteem
Self-concept
Self-knowledgable
Social self
Who am I is what part of our self:
Self-concept
My sense of self-worth/self-evaluation is indicative of which part of self:
Self-esteem
How can I explain & predict myself is a part of which self:
Self-knowledgable
Roles (i.e., my roles) are part of which self component
Social self
What refers to beliefs about self that organize and guide the processing of self-relevant information.
Self-ischema
We compare ourselves and are conscious of those differences:
Social comparison
Pavlov’s classical conditioning experiment is an example of creating self-schema:
True
People are inspired to attain similar success as a role model, but then feel demoralized if they cannot:
True
People tend to highlight best and exciting part of their lives on social media:
Yes
Social comparison online often based on incomplete information:
True
HVSM triggers a continuous cycle of emotional highs & lows, impactful on adolescent users.
Yes
Looking-glass self states that:
How we imagine others see us
Individualism prevails in Western cultures identity is self-contained:, self-reliance, separating from parents, independent self.
True
Micro: Explores individual interactions and personal experiences.
Meso: groups and organizations within society.
Exo: Examines external systems that indirectly influence individuals.
Macro: large-scale social structures and global trends.
Meta: Reflects on overarching theories and frameworks in research.
This self has an identity as a unique person:
Self-concept as stable:
Self-esteem as personal:
Independent self
Characteristics of collectivist culture:
Interdependent self
Identity in relation to others
Self-concept as malleable
Self-esteem as relational
Describe the difference in self-esteem btw. collec. & individual.:
Collec: malleable and relational
Individual: less relational and more perosnal
Collec. have upward social comparisons vs indivi. - downward:
Yes
Collec. persist longer when failing on tasks vs indivi. persist when succeding.
Yes
Indivi. has self-evaluations biased positively vs balanced for collec.
True
This fallacy refers to tendency to underestimate how long a task will take:
Planning fallacy
This bias refers to overestimating the enduring impact of emotion-causing event:
Impact bias
The tendency to underestimate the speed & strength of”psychological immune system”
Immune neglect
What system mentions that a person can hold two conflicting attitudes toward the same object:
Dual attitude system
Types of dual attitude system and define:
Implicit (automatic) attitudes
- Unconscious, influenced by past experiences & socialization. Changes slowly with practice that forms new habits.
Explicit attitudes
- Conscious, deliberative beliefs or evaluations.
May change with education & persuasion.
Self-reports are often untrustworthy because individuals may lack self-awareness, be influenced by social desirability bias, or intentionally misrepresent their thoughts and feelings to conform to societal expectations.
True
Sincerity does not guarantee validity:
Yes
Self-esteem acs as fuel gauge for our emotional state, when high we feel confident and secure. But when it drops it increases our sensitivity to criticism or negative experiences, making us more aware of it to protect us.
yes
Propose that people exhibit emotional and cognitive responses when confronted with reminders of their mortality:
Terror management theory
Research has shown that proposing silver linings or making those with lower self-esteem repeat + phrases is not helpful to boost their self-esteem:
True
What is a route to self-esteem:
Compassion
Narcissism and self-esteem interact to influence aggression (High self-esteem and high narcissism):
True
What is a belief in your own experience:
Self-efficacy
What theory explains how individuals interpret events and how this relates to their thinking & behavior:
Attribution theory
People make internal & external attributions.
Yes
Self-serving bias:
Tendency to attribute positive outcomes to yourself and failure to external factors
Not always helpful - can contribute to negative outcomes.
Fundamental attribution error:
Tendency to overemphasize personal characteristics & ignore situational factors in. others’ behaviors.
Components of self-serving bias:
- Attributing success to one’s ability and failure to luck and external things.
Comparing yourself favourably to others
Unrealistic optimism
False consensus and uniqueness
Most people consider themselves better than average:
True
Most humans are predisposed to optimism: or have unrealistic optimism (supported by being pessimistic about others. Give an exmaple
Yes,
Undergrads believe that they are far more likely than their classmates to get a job.
How does illusionary optimism increase vulnerbaility:
Makes us become unprepared for potential setbacks or negative outcomes.
Optimism promotes self-efficacy:
True
What helps people prepare for problems:
Defensive pessimism
Term sued to describe overestimating the commonality of one’s opinions & one’s undesirable or unsuccessful behaviours:
False consensus effet
What is the term to refer to underestimating the commonality of one’s abilities & one’s desirable or successful behaviours.
False uniqueness effect
cognitive process in which individuals evaluate themselves or their current situation by comparing it to their past experiences or states
Temporal comparison.
Both students & parents believe they have improved.
Term to refer to protecting one’s self-image with behaviours that create handy excuse for later failure and example:
Self-handicapping
ex: partying the night before the exam.
Two components of impression -management:
Self-presentation (present desired image) and self-monitoring (adjusting one’s performance to create desired impression)
The two brain systems we have:
System 1: Automatic
System 2: Requires attention
Self-efficacy encourages us not resign ourselves to bad situations but empowers us to take proactive steps. List issues
Twin truths: although self-efficacy enhance resilience and motivation, it can lead to pride and underestimating risks and challenges.
Not seeking help in difficult situations.
Describe the parts that define system1:
Our ‘intuition’ “gut feeing’
Out of our awareness
influences more our actions than we realize.
System 2 requires our conscious attention and effort:
True
State an example of priming for system1:
Activating particular associations in memory
Watching scary movie and interpreting household noises as an intruder
System 2 can be influenced by hidden messages and cues we aren’t ware of. What is this priming called:
Subliminal priming
Can influence our thoughts & actions, contributing to intuitive judgements.
This concept show how leaders use priming - exposing individuals to particular stimuli to shape attitudes and behaviours.
Intuitive management
Primming research shows that much of our behaviour is unconscious and give example:
Catholic students
This concept applies to factual information, judgement’s of others, or own behaviour
Overconfidence
What does the Dunning-Kruger Effect state:
Individuals with limited experience overestimate their skills & knowledge due to unawareness of what they don’t know.
Overconfidence fed by incompetence (lack skills and knowledge to accurately assess their abilities) and underestimation of situational factors (their influence of others to their success, risks, challeneges, etc.:
true
People often give too much weight to their intentions when predicting their future behavior (underestimating the influence of external factors, obstacles, their own habits that might prevent them) :
Yes
Remedies for overconfidence:
Prompt feedback
Break up tasks into subcomponents
Consider disconfirming info.
Heuristics (mental shortcuts that allow people to make quick decisions, pass judgement, or solving a problem quickly with minimal effort:
True
Two examples of heuristics:
Representativeness
Availability
Cognition typically involves acting with a physical body on an environment in which that body is immersed.
True
embodied cognition postulates that understanding cognitive processes entails understanding their close link to the motor surfaces that may generate action and to the sensory surfaces that provide sensory signals about the environment.
Yes
Schemas provide the cognitive framework that can be primed, leading to intuitive responses based on past experiences
True
Emotional reactions are often primed by envi. cues & influence our intuitive decisions:
True
Expertise allows individuals to use intuition effectively by drawing on primed patterns and schemas built through experience.
Yes
Blindsight shows intuition can operate even without conscious awareness:
Yes
What concept describes imagining alternative scenarios and outcomes that might have happened, but did not:
Counterfactual thinking
Counterfactual thinking underlies feelings of luck, regret over things not done:
Yes
What concept describes perception of relationship where non exists, or perception of stronger relationship than actually exists:
Illusionary correlational
The perception of uncontrollable event as subject to one’s control or more controllable:
Illusion of control
Ex: Gambling
What infuse our judgements:
Our moods
unhappy (brooding, self-focused) vs happy people (loving, trusting, responsive)
Temporary good or bad mood influenced people’s rating of their videotaped behaviour:
True
People everywhere perceive mediators and media as biased against their positions:
True
The beliefs individuals hold about themselves shape how they perceive and interpret information related to their own behaviour, leading to potentially skewed or irrational self-assessments.
Yes
Persistence of one’s initial conceptions, even in the face of disconfirming evidence
Belief preservation
Our beliefs and expectations shape how we interpret events; if we expect something to go a certain way, we might see and remember it in a way that supports that expectation, even if reality is different. This is an example of:
Belief preservation
How does misinformation happen:
When people mix up what they saw or experienced with misleading information they hear later, which can create false memories. Affects how we remember anything from the past.
Sometimes we make our memories to make them sound better or worse than they really were:
True
It refers to the idea that the human ego operates in a way that is similar to a totalitarian regime, where it actively seeks to control and manage information in order to maintain a positive self-image.
Greenwald’s totalitarin ego
Frequent exposure to social media can alter the way we encode (store) memories and retrieve them later, often by emphasizing certain types of information, creating biases in what we remember, or leading us to compare our lives with others, which can change our perceptions of our own experiences.
True
Issues with pervasive use of social media:
Distraction
Cognitive offloading
Point-of-view
Research shows that social media use lead to poorer memories:
yes
Repressed memories of childhood sexual abuse can be falsely reconstructed
True
Term for mistakenly attributing behaviour to the wrong cause:
Misattribution
Internal (dispositional vs external - situational)
Components of dispositional attribution:
Motivation & ability, traits
Components of situational attribution:
Physical and social circumstances.
This concept refers to spontaneous trait inference: other people’s actions are indicative of their intentions & dispositions:
True
Even when people know they are causing someone else’s behaviour, they still underestimate external influences. This is an example of:
FAE
Kelley’s covariation model suggests that people attribute the cause of behavior to either internal (dispositional) or external (situational) factors based on these three types of information: List them
Consensus
Distinctiveness
Consistency
When our ideas lead us to act in ways that produce their apparent confirmation. This is called:
Self-fulfilling prophecy
This is an example of experimenter bias:
Research participants sometimes live up to what they believe experimenters expect of them
Type of self-fulfilling prophecy where someone’s expectations about another person lead them to act in a way that influences the other person’s behavior to align with those expectations.
Behavioural confirmation
Favourable or unfavourable evaluative reaction toward something or someone displayed through beliefs, feelings, intended behavior.
Attitudes
Attitudes are not a great predictor of behavior:
True
ABCS of attitudes:
Affect, behaviour, cognition
What evaluates reaction times in pairing words or images.
It reveals implicit biases that individuals may not consciously recognize, providing insights into attitudes towards race, gender, and other social categories.
Implicit Association Test (IAT)
What concept states that specific attitudes are better predictors of behavior when examined in collective/multiple situations or average manner.
Principle of aggregation
Issues with the IAT:
Realiability (low test-retest)
Validity: predictive and construct validity
Contextual influences: results impacted by situational factors.
Interpretation of results: risk of over generalization, not capturing everything.
This theory states that Attitudes, perceived social norms, feelings of control create behaviour intention that ultimately form planned behaviour.
True
Much of our behaviour is automatic, why?
Frees up our minds to do other things.
What makes our attitudes more accessible, more enduring, more likely to guide acitons:
When forged by experience
Social contexts and expectations, e.g., role playing can shape our behavior that lead to changes in our attitudes:
When people adapt what they say to please listeners
ex: Stanford Prison Experiment (Guards and prisoners)
Yes
The tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request
Foot-in-the-Door
Works even when people are aware of a profit motive
Takes advantage of the psychological effects of making a commitment. This is an example of
Low-ball technique
Tendency for people who decline larger request to agree to a smaller request.
Effective when norms of reciprocity is salient.
Door-In-The-Face
This refers to a concept when people change their preferences btw. two options b/c a third, less attractive one (decoy) is added.
Decoy Effect
Immoral act often result from gradually escalating commitments even when it becomes evident that it may lead to negative or immoral outcomes.
Yes
Example of public conformity that lead to private acceptance:
Singing “O Canada”
Orange shirt day
This concept refers to being concerned with making a good impression in order to gain social & material rewards, feel better about ourselves, or become secure in our social identities:
Wanting to appear consistent:
Impression management
When we have two thoughts that are inconsistent or incompatible:
Or when our behaviour is inconsistent with our attitudes:
Cognitive dissonance theory
People prefer to expose themselves to information that aligns with their point of view: name the concept
Selective exposure
This theory states that when our actions are not fully explained by external rewards or coercion we experience dissonance. This is b/c our actions conflict with our beliefs. Convincing yourself that what you did was right or acceptable is a way to reduce this.
Dissonance theory
When we choose between two equally attractive (or equally unattractive) alternatives
To reduce it: upgrading the chosen alternative and downgrading the unselected.
Dissonance after decision
Having an individualistic self-concept can lead to dissonance following a personal choice
True
Having a collectivistic self-concept can lead to dissonance following a choice made for one’s group
True
This theory assumes that we make similar inferences when we observe our own behaviour
When our attitudes are weak or ambiguous, we are in the position of someone who observes us from the outside
Self-perception theory (self-observation)
When people do something they enjoy, without reward or coercion, they attribute their behaviour to their love of the activity
When people think their arousal is due to an external factor (like a pill), they don’t experience cognitive dissonance as strongly, and therefore, they don’t feel compelled to change their attitudes
People often experience self-image threat after engaging in an undesirable behaviour, and they compensate for this threat by affirming another aspect of the self
Threaten people’s self-concept in one domain and they will compensate either by refocusing or by doing good deeds in some other domain
Self-affirmation theory
Who proposed self-perception theory:
Bem
Example of self-perceiving when not self-contradicting:
If someone frequently volunteers without feeling forced or conflicted, they may conclude that they genuinely value altruism
Dissonance Theory asserts that attitude change stems from the psychological arousal caused by feeling inconsistent, some studies indicate that individuals can change their attitudes without significant discomfort, challenging the idea that arousal is necessary for this change. For instance, someone might adopt a healthier lifestyle simply because they find it enjoyable, not because they feel any internal conflict about their previous habits.
when an external reward or incentive diminishes a person’s intrinsic motivation to engage in an activity b/c they will begin to attribute their actions to rewards rather than intrinsic interest.
