Exam Review

Question 1

Ingratiation is a social influence tactic where someone uses flattery or compliments to gain favor or approval, but others may interpret it as either genuine appreciation, manipulation, or an effort to build a relationship.

Question 2

We need to feel a sense of belonging, autonomy, and competence

Question 3

is feeling connected, free, and capable

Answer 3

Happiness

Question 4

ostracism, or excluding someone socially, is a way people regulate behavior in a group. It can be more damaging than bullying because it isolates individuals, especially when done online (cyberostracism). Additionally, even those who participate in ostracizing others can be negatively affected by it.

Question 5

What Leads To Friendship And Attraction?

Answer 5

Proximity
- interaction increase liking because people are more likely to form connections when they encounter each other often.

• Anticipation of interaction also boosts liking, as we tend to like people we’re about to engage with.
• The mere exposure effect suggests that the more we’re exposed to something (even without consciously realizing it), the more we tend to like it or rate it positively.

Question 6

people’s immediate feelings (liking or disliking) are often influenced more by repeated exposure to something, rather than by careful, conscious thought or analysis. The study shows that mere exposure—seeing something repeatedly—can shape our preferences even before we consciously evaluate it, suggesting that emotions (instant reactions) are often quicker and stronger than cognitive judgments (thoughtful, considered decisions).

Answer 6

Note: mere exposure effect (MEF) is with the exception of those who we dislike initially, seeing them more often can make us dislike them further.

Question 7

MEF

Answer 7

When we plot preference on y-axis and repetition on x-axis, takes 15 repeats for the affect to reach its full potential.

If exposure is excessive, annoyance,

Two main explanations for this phenomenon:
Certainty: we favor what’s familiar & by that safe

Perceptual fluency: We prefer simple things that take little mental loads.

Such as Robert Zajonic’s study - organisms exposure to something new - fear, with repeated exposure - leas fear and more interest, react fondly.

• Also Chinese ideograms, those shown these the most, rated them as most favourable.
• Tachistoscope: participants when asked which shaped they found pleasing, referred to the one they were exposed the most even without no conscious awareness of that.

Question 8

PHYSICAL ATTRACTIVENESS

Answer 8

In dating, attractiveness is important for both men and women, though men tend to prioritize it more, while women value traits like humor, honesty, and kindness. The matching phenomenon refers to the tendency for people to choose partners who are similar to them in attractiveness and other characteristics.

Question 9

The physical attractiveness stereotype suggests that people assume attractive individuals possess other positive traits, which can lead to a self-fulfilling prophecy, with attractiveness influencing first impressions, social treatment, and even success, while attractiveness itself is often relative and influenced by social comparison.

Question 10

Similarity suggests that people are drawn to those who share similar traits and values, while complementarity suggests that differences can attract if they balance each other out, though in general, similarity tends to lead to more liking, and dissimilarity often breeds dislike, influencing social dynamics and even cultural biases.

Question 11

Reciprocity of liking - means we like those who like us

Answer 11

with attribution shaping how we interpret others’ actions, ingratiation (like flattery) enhancing likability,

low self-esteem can cause people to underestimate their partner’s affection.

Question 12

If someone you like gives you a sincere compliment, it can increase your attraction to them, but excessive flattery can backfire, and people with low self-esteem may doubt their worth in relationships, leading them to misinterpret their partner’s affection and feel insecure.

Question 13

suggests we are drawn to people whose behavior is rewarding or who are associated with positive experiences,

with proximity and similarity increasing these rewarding interactions, and liking by association further boosting attraction.

Answer 13

Reward theory of attraction

Question 14

We tend to like people who are associated with positive experiences, developing positive feelings simply because they are present during rewarding or enjoyable situations.

Question 15

Passionate love

Answer 15

A state of intense longing for union with another

See diagram

Question 16

The two-factor theory of emotion suggests that love arises from both physiological arousal and the label we assign to it, with cultural and gender variations, such as some cultures prioritizing love in relationships and men typically falling in love faster and linking physical attraction to love.

Question 17

In the two-factor theory of emotion, the caudate nucleus plays a role in both physical movement and emotional processes, like romantic interaction, where physiological arousal (such as excitement and increased heart rate from a roller coaster) combined with a cognitive label (interpreting that arousal as love) can lead to romantic attraction (emotional experience), especially when experienced with someone you’re attracted to.

Question 18

In this scenario, the two-factor theory of emotion suggests that the arousal from the thrilling roller coaster ride (increased heart rate, excitement) is interpreted as romantic attraction when you’re with someone you like, causing you to label (cognitive label) the physical excitement as love instead of fear, which in turn increases your attraction to them.

Question 19

The affection we feel for those with whom our lives are deeply intertwined is a stable, enduring form of love that develops through shared experiences and emotional intimacy, often described as “lower key”; it may be more natural and adaptive, though those who expect constant passion may experience disillusionment.

Answer 19

Compassionate love

Question 20

Which long-term relationship will survive, and which will not:

Answer 20

The real reason for break-ups lies in one or both spouse’s sense that they have not been heard, or something important to them has been disregarded.

Their point of view has not been acknowledge or honoured.

it’s never the presence of the differences per se.

Question 21

Attachment styles describe different patterns of emotional bonds in relationships:

Secure attachment: Characterized by trust, intimacy, and comfort in closeness with others.

Avoidant attachment: Involves discomfort with intimacy, often resulting in emotional distance or resistance to closeness.

Anxious-ambivalent attachment: Marked by anxiety or uncertainty about the relationship, often seeking closeness while fearing rejection or inconsistency.

Question 22

John Bowlby - Attachment Theory

Question 23

Equity in relationships means that the rewards people get are proportional to their contributions; in long-term relationships, strict “tit-for-tat” doesn’t work well, and perceived inequality can lead to dissatisfaction and marital distress.

Question 24

Self-disclosure is sharing personal information, and

the disclosure reciprocity effect is when people tend to match each other’s level of intimacy in what they share.

Answer 24

Self and other

See how relationships end

Question 25

The Mere-Exposure Effect is the tendency to like things more simply because we’ve been exposed to them repeatedly.

Answer 25

See table

Question 26

Same-sex couples tend to handle disagreements more positively with sensitivity, humor, and less defensiveness, which helps them stay more positive afterward; relationships end due to issues like communication breakdown or loss of trust.

Answer 26

Conscious uncoupling- positive term for divorce that is amicable, responsible, and blame free.

Question 27

Unhappy couples argue, criticize, and put each other down, while happy couples focus on agreement, approval, and humor; healthy marriages manage conflict with affection, and third marriages have the highest divorce rate at 73%.

Question 28

The zero-sum perspective sees conflict as a situation where one side’s gain is the other side’s loss, but genuine peace goes beyond avoiding conflict—it’s about finding shared goals, mutual respect, and reconciling differences to achieve common outcomes, like both sides benefiting in a situation.

Answer 28

In the Prisoner’s Dilemma, the outcome depends on whether both prisoners cooperate or betray each other. In conflicts, people often view the other side as selfish, which can escalate hostility. Motives may shift over time from resolving issues to seeking revenge or power. Integrative bargaining allows both parties to win by collaborating, shifting the conflict from competition to cooperation.

Question 29

Social Dilemmas
The Prisoner’s Dilemma
The fundamental attribution error
Evolving motives
Outcomes need not sum to zero

Answer 29

A social dilemma occurs when individuals face a choice between maximizing their personal gain and supporting the collective good

Question 30

if both prisoners confess, both get seven years. If neither confesses, each gets three years. If one confesses, that prisoner is set free in exchange for evidence used to convict the other of a crime bringing a ten-year sentence. If you were one of the prisoners, would you confess?

Question 31

The Nash equilibrium in the Prisoner’s Dilemma is when both prisoners choose to confess, because even though they would both do better if they stayed silent, neither can improve their situation by changing their choice once the other’s decision is made.

Question 32

describes how shared resources are overused and depleted when individuals act in their own self-interest, leading to inequality in consumption and a lack of collective responsibility.

Answer 32

Tragedy of the commons

Question 33

A social dilemma occurs when individuals harm a shared resource by acting in their own self-interest, like taking parts from a bridge, which eventually causes it to collapse. To resolve social dilemmas: includes

Answer 33

regulation, smaller groups, communication, incentives, and appeals to altruism.

Question 34

suggests that hostility arises when groups compete for scarce resources, leading to perceived threats, prejudice, and conflict, as shown in Muzafer Sherif’s 1966 experiments with boys.

Answer 34

Realistic conflict theory

Question 35

A science experiment on groups of boys from competing camps,

Friction phase
Conflict resolution

Four key things from the experiment:
- Individual differences are not responsible for tribal conflicts (age, race, culture, or religion)
- Hostile attitdues arise when see previous
flashcard.
- Discussions don’t solve conflicts
- Only a common goal or enemy that promotes cooperation reduces the friction

Question 36

Perceived injustice occurs when people feel unfairly treated, and justice can mean equal sharing or sharing based on need.

Question 37

Transmission communication:

transactional model:

Answer 37

• No exchange, but a message that moves directly from one person to another.
• As we communicate our message, we receive feedback.

Our perceptual filters continually shift meanings and interpretation.

Question 38

Conflict arises when opposing groups perceive each other’s goals or actions as incompatible, often influenced by negative mirror-image perceptions and myside bias, which reinforce hostility and hinder peace.

Answer 38

Mirror-image perceptions occur when conflicting parties see each other in overly simplistic, stereotypical, and often negative ways, based on misunderstandings or lack of information.

Question 39

Contact can help achieve peace, as studies show that increased contact generally predicts more tolerance and reduced prejudice, especially toward vulnerable or racialized groups, with 94% of studies supporting this.

Question 40

Contact can improve racial attitudes, but it doesn’t always work due to factors like self-segregation and anxiety around interracial interactions. Pluralistic ignorance—where people mistakenly believe others are not open to mixing—also contributes to a lack of integration, though misperceptions don’t prevent cross-racial friendships or romances. The example of Scottburgh, South Africa, shows how desegregation doesn’t automatically lead to mixing, as represented by the dots (different races) on the beach.

Question 41

Friendship and intergroup contact can reduce prejudice and increase support for racial equality by reducing anxiety, increasing empathy, humanizing others, and decreasing perceived threats, especially when contact is equal-status.

Question 42

Common external threats can build group cohesiveness, as facing a shared enemy or challenge increases solidarity and unity; superordinate goals—goals that require cooperative effort from all members—foster cooperation and collaboration.

Question 43

Cooperative learning improves racial attitudes by fostering collaboration, and over time, bicultural identification—identifying with both one’s original and a new culture—leads to positive outcomes like better well-being, adaptability, and social connectedness.

Answer 43

Bicultural: Strong identification with both the majority culture and one’s ethnic culture.
Assimilated: Strong identification with the majority culture, weak identification with one’s ethnic culture.
Separated: Strong identification with one’s ethnic culture, weak identification with the majority culture.
Marginal: Weak identification with both the majority culture and one’s ethnic culture. check

Question 44

Bargaining and mediation help resolve conflicts by turning win-lose situations into win-win solutions, with integrative agreements being more lasting, and controlled communication clearing up misperceptions.

Question 45

Arbitration is a binding decision by a third party, conciliation helps parties understand each other, and GRIT involves one side taking small steps to reduce conflict, often used in international negotiations

Answer 45

See last video

Question 46

Guest lectures

Question 47

is a personality disorder marked by arrogant, deceitful behavior, lack of empathy, impulsivity, and early onset of antisocial actions like manipulation, callousness, and criminal behavior.

Answer 47

Psychopathy

Question 48

Who comes to mind when you think of
a fictional or real “psychopath”?

Answer 48

See list

Question 49

Psychopathy is a costly disorder associated with substance abuse, early mortality, persistent criminal behavior, intimate partner violence, workplace bullying, and violence, with economic costs reaching $512 billion in the U.S. and $26 billion in Canada.

Answer 49

See pie diagrams

Question 50

Psychopathy is rare in the general population but is more common among certain groups, such as CEOs, incarcerated criminals, pimps, and serial killers.

Answer 50

Many psychopaths are criminals, but others avoid prison by using their charm and manipulative skills to cause harm and leave a trail of ruined lives.

Question 51

Psychopathy has a significant impact on relationships, with many victims being survivors of toxic intimate partnerships, including both current and past relationships, often affecting individuals with varying levels of education and a wide age range.

Question 52

The most common ways people meet are through online dating sites, work, and social settings like community events or vacations, with smaller percentages meeting in bars, through friends, or even in places like prison or AA

Question 53

Three warning signs of a potential psychopath include superficial charm, manipulative behavior, and a lack of empathy.

Answer 53

Red flags in a potential psychopath include evasiveness, arrogance, excessive flattery, controlling behavior, emotional coldness, rapid relationship progression, and seeking pity, among other risky behaviors.

Question 54

Toxic relationships often involve psychological manipulation, deception, financial control, physical and sexual abuse, with psychological abuse being most common.

Question 55

Love Bombing: excessive showering of
love to manipulate

Answer 55

Gaslighting: repeatedly manipulating
situations to trick victim into distrusting
themselves

Question 56

To help victims and survivors:

Support
for
children
Online
support
Legal
recourse
Access to
services
Education

Answer 56

See the rest

Question 57

Categories of prosocial behaviour

Answer 57

Helping
* Caring
* Sharing
* Informing

Question 58

Prosocial behavior is voluntary actions intended to help others, but it raises questions about whether animals or babies can do this, whether behaviors are always intentional, and if motives are always altruistic or sometimes instrumental. Also, can actions that fail to help still be considered prosocial?

Question 59

Darwin suggested that any social animal would develop a moral sense, and he observed a dog showing kindness to a sick cat, implying the dog had feelings of empathy or care. In 1871, people might have been surprised by the idea that animals could show moral behavior, as it challenged earlier beliefs.

Question 60

Species like primates, dolphins, elephants, and some birds show behaviors like warning cries, sharing food, helping defend others, and caring for the sick, demonstrating a moral sense.

Question 61

Evolution can promote cooperation, despite the idea that it favors self-interest (“red in tooth and claw”). Kropotkin, in his 1902 work Mutual Aid, showed that cooperation, not just competition, is common in nature, with animals often helping each other to survive.

Answer 61

some animals, including humans, may have evolved through cooperation and “self-domestication,” where they retain juvenile traits into adulthood, making humans, in some ways, resemble juvenile chimpanzees.

Cooperation as a way to
out-compete other species

“cooperation as a way to out-compete other species” means that species that work together and form social bonds can gain evolutionary advantages, such as better survival or resource sharing, allowing them to thrive and outlast species that rely solely on competition or individual survival strategies.

Question 62

Prosocial behavior typically appears in children around their second year of life, with one early example being helping others, as demonstrated in Warneken & Tomasello’s 2006 study.

Answer 62

Children may learn prosocial behaviors either through innate, evolutionary programming or by learning from their parents, who “scaffold” these behaviors.

Question 63

Problem solving behavior (PSB), like helping in emergencies, is often studied in social psychology, but children may learn it through innate mechanisms, as infants too young for verbal guidance still show helping behaviors.

Answer 63

Bystander intervention (negative scenarios in social psychology)

Question 64

children might learn prosocial behaviors (PSB) by participating in everyday situations, and that gender differences exist in types of prosocial behaviors, with males more likely to engage in “heroic” actions and females in caring behaviors, which could inform the debate on whether PSB is innate or learned.

Answer 64

Humans work together all
the time – only rarely in
problem solving situations

Question 65

Prosocial Behavior (PSB): Involves helping, sharing, and cooperation, emerging around 18 months. It could be innate (evolutionary) or learned (through social interactions).

Cultural Influence:
WEIRD cultures: Less focus on helping, with children mainly attending school.
Indigenous & elder-focused societies: Children are expected to contribute more to the community.

Gender Differences:
Males: More likely to engage in heroic problem-solving.
Females: More likely to engage in caring behaviors.

Parental Scaffolding: Parents guide children’s PSB through participation, with better scaffolding linked to more PSB.

Unhelpful Helping: Infants may help but can do so ineffectively, highlighting the early, unintentional nature of PSB.

Emotional Aspect: Helping can be fun and emotionally rewarding, driven by interest and positive emotions.

Early PSB Emergence: PSB can emerge before locomotion, influenced by human helplessness and a need for help, which fosters helping behavior.

PSB Research: Studies show early PSB linked to parental cues and the evolutionary need for humans to help each other.

Answer 65

Humans’ prolonged helplessness as infants is an evolutionary trait that fosters a unique experience of receiving help, which in turn teaches them to help others.

Question 66

“Sociopathy” and “psychopathy” are both terms used to describe individuals who exhibit antisocial behavior, but they are often used to refer to different subsets of what is now generally categorized as Antisocial Personality Disorder (ASPD) in clinical settings. While the terms overlap in many ways, there are key differences in how they are typically understood:

Psychopathy
Nature vs. Nurture: Psychopathy is often viewed as more genetically driven or inherent. Psychopaths are believed to have brain structures or chemical imbalances that affect their emotional responses, impulse control, and ability to empathize. This means their behavior is often less influenced by environmental factors and more by biology.

Emotional and Social Functioning: Psychopaths tend to be emotionally shallow, and they have a diminished ability to feel empathy or guilt. This makes them more likely to engage in manipulative, exploitative, and cold-blooded behavior. They can be charming and charismatic but tend to lack a real emotional connection to others.

Behavioral Traits: Psychopaths are often seen as more calm, calculated, and less prone to emotional outbursts. They tend to plan their actions more carefully and are often more successful in avoiding detection or getting caught. Their crimes or harmful behaviors are typically more premeditated.

Social Relationships: Psychopaths are usually better at masking their antisocial tendencies and may have more stable jobs or relationships compared to sociopaths. However, they still tend to manipulate people for personal gain, without any true emotional connection.

Sociopathy
Nature vs. Nurture: Sociopathy is often thought to be more environmentally influenced, with early traumatic experiences, neglect, or abuse playing a key role in the development of sociopathic traits. Sociopaths may have a difficult time forming attachments, but this is typically due to their negative experiences with people, rather than an inherent inability to do so.

Emotional and Social Functioning: Sociopaths tend to have a higher capacity for emotional engagement, but their emotions are often erratic or intense. They may feel anger, frustration, or rage more intensely than others, which can lead to violent or aggressive behavior.

Behavioral Traits: Sociopaths are generally seen as impulsive and reckless. They may act on a whim or without regard for consequences, often getting caught or causing significant disruption in their lives. Their behavior is typically unplanned and erratic, and they can be more prone to violent outbursts.

Social Relationships: Sociopaths often have difficulty maintaining relationships or jobs, as their impulsive behavior and lack of consideration for others lead to instability in their lives. They tend to act out in socially inappropriate ways and may have trouble keeping a job or sustaining long-term relationships.

Key Differences:
Emotional Responses:
Psychopaths are emotionally shallow and often lack empathy and remorse.
Sociopaths may feel emotions more intensely but often in a disordered or maladaptive way. They can form attachments, but these are typically disorganized and dysfunctional.
Behavior:
Psychopaths tend to be calm, controlled, and manipulative, often planning their actions meticulously.
Sociopaths are more likely to be impulsive, erratic, and prone to outbursts or violence.
Social Connections:
Psychopaths can mimic normal social relationships and are often more successful in integrating into society, even though their relationships are often shallow and exploitative.
Sociopaths are more likely to struggle with stable relationships or jobs due to their impulsive and destructive behavior.
Cause:
Psychopathy is thought to be more genetic or neurological in origin.
Sociopathy is generally thought to be a result of environmental factors, such as childhood trauma or neglect.

Common Ground:
Both sociopaths and psychopaths share core traits such as:

A disregard for the rights of others
Lack of empathy
Chronic violation of social norms and laws
Manipulative behavior
Deceitfulness
However, these differences are often blurred in both clinical and popular discourse, and the terms “sociopath” and “psychopath” are sometimes used interchangeably. Many experts prefer the clinical term Antisocial Personality Disorder (ASPD), as it encompasses both of these subtypes of antisocial behavior without trying to draw sharp distinctions.

Summary:
Psychopaths are typically more cold, calculated, and have a more innate lack of empathy and remorse. They are better at blending into society and often have more controlled, planned behavior.
Sociopaths tend to be more impulsive, erratic, and driven by emotions like anger. They are often less able to control their impulses and struggle more with stable social connections.
Both are considered to be dangerous or harmful to society, but in different ways.

Answer 66

Antisocial behavior refers to actions that violate societal norms, disregard the rights of others, and often involve manipulation, deceit, or harm, typically without remorse or empathy.