Midterm 1 Cognition

Question 1

What is cognition?

Answer 1

“the mental action or process of acquiring knowledge and understanding through thought, experience, and the senses”

Question 2

which three stages did the stude of human cognition advance in?

Answer 2

Late 1950’s to early 1960’s

Mid 1970’s

Mid-1980’s

Question 3

which stage of the study of human cognition was characterized by rapid progession propelled by methods of traditional psychophysics and experimental psychology?

Answer 3

1950’s to early 1960’s

Question 4

which stage of the study of human cognition was fueled by computational analysis and marked arrival of early cognitive science?

Answer 4

mid-1970’s

Question 5

which stage of the study of cognition incorporated evidence from neurophysiology and utilizes an ever-increasing array of imaging techniques

Answer 5

mid-1980’s

Question 6

are humans active selectors or passive receivers of information?

Answer 6

active selectors

Question 7

what is a bit?

Answer 7

It stands for “binary digit” and it is the most basic unit of information. it is the quantification of the amount of information provided by the occurrence of an event

Question 8

what is information theory?

Answer 8

information theory posits tha the information provided in a message is inversly related to its probability of occurence…. the less likely it is, the more information it conveys…. kinda like when someone asks how you are doing and you respond with “I’m good”–> this does not give a lot of information whereas if someone would answer with “I’m doing terrible” this would give us much more informatiion

Question 9

what is the time limitation in information processing?

Answer 9

the amount of time it takes for information to be processed in the nervous system

Question 10

what is capacity limitation in information processing?

Answer 10

the amount of information that the nervous system can process within a fixed period of time.

Question 11

what are the limitation of information processing?

Answer 11

the limits are time and capacity

Question 12

what is Broadbent’s Filter Model Based on?

Answer 12

It’s based on the idea that information - processing is restricted by channel capacity– the maximum amount of information that can be transmitted by an information processing device.

Question 13

explain the steps in which information would be processed under Broadbent’s Filter model.

Answer 13

information enters in through vison or hearing and is shipped to short term memory store…. information then goes through a filter. this filter operates by selecting messages that share some basic physical characteristics. the filter then passed along a selection of information to the limited capacity system responsible for the analysis of “high order” stimulus attributes

Question 14

what does broadbent’s experiment with digits being presented to ones ears suggest?

Answer 14

suggest that ears function as separate channels, and switching between them more often caused more information decay

Question 15

explain Waugh and Normans Model on memory

Answer 15

Waugh and Norman’s model consists of

1. Primary memory (what we are aware of in the “immediately present moment” )
2. Secondary memory (knowledge acquired at an earlier time that is stored indefinately also called long term memory)

This model suggests that without rehersal, primary memory is quickly forgotten

Question 16

Explain ecological validity.

Answer 16

Gibson argued for an ecological approad using the richness of information provided by the natural environment.

the meaning of objects and events can be percieved in terms of their affordances (food affords the possibility of eating… stairs, climbing ect)

we learn what can and can’t be done with items through information pickup-the process whereby we perceive information directly

learning means becoming progressively more attuned to what the environment affords us.

Question 17

explain how Neisser Proposed a cyclical model of cognition

Answer 17

SCHEMA directs the exploration of the environment

PERCEPTUAL CYCLE: A schema brings the perceiver into contact with new information to correct the schema

Question 18

what was the point of cognitive ethology?

Answer 18

offers concrete and specific suggestions for carrying out studies in the real world in a way that will complement laboratory-based research

it is a new approach to studying cognition

Question 19

what does Metacognition refer to ?

Answer 19

refers to the knowledge people have about the way that cognition processes work.

Question 20

Cognitive psychology can be thought of as what?

Answer 20

a process of developing our metacognition

it is a actively developing area of injury
it contains many alternative hypotheses about how the mind works

Question 21

_________________________ provides tools for the analysis of many different kinds of problems.

Answer 21

cognitive psychology

Question 22

what do neuroscientists assume about the brain?

Answer 22

they assume that the brain is modular i.e. composed of different parts, each of which performs a different cognitive function

Question 23

what is the idea of localization of function?

Answer 23

it is the idea that there is direct correspondence between specific cognitive functions and specific parts of the brain

Question 24

what is phrenology?

Answer 24

study of the shape and size protrusions of the cranium in the attempt to discover the relationships between parts of the brain and various mental activities and abilities

Question 25

who opposed the localization of function Idea? and what did this guy study?

Answer 25

Franz. he studied the effects of ablation , or destroying parts of an animals brain and observing behaviour. His conclusion was that mental processes are due to the activity of the brain as a whole and not individual parts.

Question 26

Lashley, a student of Franz, continued ablation studies, what did he do?

Answer 26

he studied rats ability to learn or remember mazes after different degrees of brain damage.

He found little or no reduction in performance with small brain damage but more issues once damage became more extensive.

he suggested that learning was directly proportional to the amount of brain damage rather than the location of the damage.

Question 27

what is the law of mass action?

Answer 27

learning and memory depend on the total mass of brain tissue remaining rather than the properties of the individual cells.

Question 28

what is the law of equipotentiality?

Answer 28

despite the fact that certain brain areas may become specialized to perform specific functions, within limits, any part of the brain can do the job of any other part of the brain.

Question 29

how are we trying to arrive to an integrated understanding of the mind and the brain?

Answer 29

Cognitive neuroscience draws on multiple disciplines like biology, linguistics, philosophy, psychology

Question 30

Whats the difference between Consciousness and the mind?

Answer 30

consciousness or what we are aware of at any point and Mind , which includes consciousness, as well as processes that occur outside of awareness.

Question 31

fours= classic approaches to how the mind and brain are integrated include:

Answer 31

Interactionism

epiphenominalism

Parallelism

Isomorphism

Question 32

Interractionism is associated with Descartes (early 1600s), explain this approach in further detail.

Answer 32

the mind and brain are separate entities that interact and influence each other.

this dualistic view was not widely adopted by subsequent researchers, with the exception of Nobel Prize winner Roger Sperry

Question 33

explain the approach of Epiphenomenalism:

Answer 33

it maintains that the mind is a by-product of bodily functioning.

the mind has no causal role in determining behaviour

Question 34

Explain the approach of Parallelism:

Answer 34

Parallelism views the mind and brain as two aspects of the same reality, as they operate in parallel. Every event in the mind has a corresponding event in the brain.

Question 35

Explain the approach of Isomorphism:

Answer 35

Isomorphism can be traced back to Gestalt psychology, which argues that consciousness is organized into a coherent whole.

Experience and its corresponding brain pattern share the same pattern in all their structural characteristics.

Question 36

The same external stimulus can produce different internal experiences, therefore there must be a corresponding change in the underlying brain function… this can be experienced by:

Answer 36

necker cube

Question 37

Mothods in Cognitive Neuroscience:

Answer 37

• animal models
• Study of Brian injuries
• Surgical intervention
• ERP, fMRI, PET, MEG,
• Connectivist models
• Combining methods

Question 38

what are two classic studies of brain injuries?

Answer 38

the broca and wernike studies

Question 39

What is Brocas aphasia?

Answer 39

Broca’s aphasia is a deficit in the ability to produce speech as a result of damage to Brocas area, in the left hemisphere of the brain.

language comprehension remains intact, but ability to produce speech is severly comprimised

Question 40

What is Wernike’s aphasia?

Answer 40

Wernikes aphasia is caused by damage to Wernike’s area, the area in the brains left hemisphere that is responsible for processing the meaning of words.

Language comprehension is compromised and the affected individual produces incoherent speech

Question 41

does speech production and comprehension only occur in brocas and wernikes?

Answer 41

no,

Question 42

in split brain patients, what do the left and right hemispheres manage independantly?

Answer 42

left: analytic tasks
right: holistic tasks

Question 43

which early brain imaging techniques provided high quality static “snapshots” of the brain?

Answer 43

CT and MRI

Question 44

What kind of “scans” can measure temporal information about the brain?

Answer 44

fMRI and EEG

Question 45

Rugg (1995) reviewed studies in which:

Answer 45

• participants were shown a series of items
• the ERP associated with each item was recorded
• the participants were asked to recal items

Question 46

what does Rugg’s review suggest?

Answer 46

suggests that the waveform for items that will be remembered is different from the waveform for items that will be forgotten

Question 47

can ERPs be used to understand brain processes ?

Answer 47

yes, but along with other techniques

Question 48

What is PET?

Answer 48

it is an imaging technique where a radioactive substance is injected into the bloodstream. It allows detection of blood flow to different areas of the brain while the participant does different tasks.
-active areas in the brain use more oxygen therefor need more blood flow to these areas

Question 49

what is Magnetoencephalography (MEG)

Answer 49

a non invasive brain imaging technique that combines the spatial resolution of fMRI and the temporal resolution of ERPs
-it measures the magnetic fields produced by electrical activity in the brain.

Question 50

what is teh Connectionist theory?

Answer 50

Connectionist theory holds that the brain consists of an enormous number of interconnected neurons.

it attemps to model cognition as an emergent process of networks of simple units communicating with one another

A model of the networks formed by neurons might help us to understand how cognitive processes work

focuses on physiological/neurological level

Question 51

what kind of modern imaging technique can help show how information flows between and within brain regions?

Answer 51

DTI

Question 52

two basic connectionist ideas are that:

Answer 52

a. information can be broken down into elementary units

b. there are cennoections between these units

Question 53

Neural network:

Answer 53

neurons that are functionally related or connected

Question 54

what is the Hebb rule?

Answer 54

a connection between two neurons takes place only if both neurons are firing at the same time.

Question 55

what is an important assumption of connectionist models?

Answer 55

that many connections can be active at the same time- an example of parallel processing.

Question 56

Serial processing:

Answer 56

only one connection is operating at the same time.

Question 57

what is perception?

Answer 57

is the processing of sensory information in such a way that it produces conscious experiences and guides action in the world.

Question 58

what does visual perception involve?

Answer 58

involves the pprocessing of information conveyed by light energy that enters the eye.

Question 59

what steps does light energy enter the eye?

Answer 59

1. enter eye through the cornea
2. passses through a small opening called the pupil (pupil size controlled by the iris)
3. is refreacted through the lens
4. is focused on the tissue at the back of the eye know as the retina
5. where it is captureed by light receptors called photoreceptors (most densely packed in fovea) and changed into a neural signal.

the neural signal is then transmitted to the brain through the optic nerve

Question 60

what is the Primary visual cortex ?

Answer 60

is the area at the back of the brain responsible for the early processing of the visual signal and involved in visual consciousness

Question 61

retinotopic means what?

Answer 61

visual info falling on adjacent sides of the brain

Question 62

Visual processing is highly modular; distinct regions of the brain process different aspects of the visual input. Some visual deficits caused by damage to specific areas of the brain include:

Achromotopsia:
Akinetopsia:
Visual Agnosia:

Answer 62

Achromotopsia: inability to perceive color

Akinetopsia: inability to perceive objects in motion

Visual agnosia: inability to identify objects visually even though they can be identified using other senses.

Question 63

There are two distinct visual processing pathways:

Answer 63

Ventral or “what” pathway: responsible for determining object shape, colour, and meaningful identity.

And

Dorsal or “where” pathway: responsible for determining object location and motion, and guiding action.

Question 64

explain Feedforward sweep:

Answer 64

visual information from the primary visual cortex first propagates down the “what” and “where” pathways.

Question 65

explain re-entrant (feedback) connections:

Answer 65

regions at the ends of the ventral and dorsal pathways send information back to the primary visual cortex through re-entrant(feedback connections

Question 66

the effects of feed forward processing on perceptual experience are often referred to as:

Answer 66

bottom up influences

Question 67

the effects of feedback processing on perceptual experiences are often referred to as:

Answer 67

top-down processing

Question 68

Bottom up influences:

Answer 68

the feedforward influnece of the external environment on the resulting perceptual experience.

Question 69

Top down influences:

Answer 69

the feedback influence of context and the individuals knowledge, expectations, and high level goals on perceptual experience.

Question 70

Fusiform Face area (FFA):

Answer 70

the brain area responsible for the conscious recognition of faces.

Question 71

A selective deficit in the ability to consciously recognize faces due to the damage to the Fusiform face area is called?

Answer 71

Prosopagnosia

Question 72

Parahippocampla place area (PPA):

Answer 72

the brain area responsible for conscious recognition of places.

Question 73

Extrastriate body area (EBA):

Answer 73

the brian area involved in processing non-facial body parts.

Question 74

Patern recognition:

Answer 74

the ability to recognize an event as an instance of particular category of event.

Question 75

Currently machine out perform humans in __________ while humans outperform machines in ________

Answer 75

“highly constraint” situations, “real-world tasks”

Question 76

Memory trace:

Answer 76

the trace that an experience leaves behind in memory.

Question 77

The Hoffding Funtction:

Answer 77

the process whereby an experience makes contact with a memory trace resulting in recognition.

Question 78

Feature detection theory:

Answer 78

detecting patterns on the basis of their features or properties

Question 79

Selfridge’s(1959) pandemonium model is a model of pattern recognition consisting of three levels:

Answer 79

Features: the bottom-level model consists of properties of the stimulus such as size, colour, shape, etc

cognitive demons: the next level decides whether the stimulus matches its particular pattern

decision demons: the top level decides which pattern is being recognized based on the input of the cognitive demons.

Question 80

Pelli et al. (2003) investigated the effect of the contrast between the letters in a word and the background on which they are printed. Participants were shown words for 200 milliseconds and then had a recognition test (varied word length and contrast energy) explain what they found.

Answer 80

they found that as the word length increased, more contrast energy was required to recognize the word.

the result suggest that words that have low contrast energy may be “squelched by the visual system.

Question 81

what does the Recognition by componants theory posit?

Answer 81

it posits that we regognize objects by breaking them down into their fundamental geometric shapes, geons, and then compare with existing memory representation.

Question 82

what are Geons?

Answer 82

Geons are the set of 36 basic three-dimentional shapes from which all real-world objects can be constructed

Question 83

which theory accounts for how we are able to recognize objects from different view points?

Answer 83

Recognition by componants theory

Question 84

which theory explains why object recognition is robust against visual noise?

Answer 84

Recognition by componants theory.

Question 85

what is the template-matching theory?

Answer 85

themplate matching theaory involves comparing the configuration of the current sensory input with a standard configuration we have in memory (a prototype or template)

Question 86

what is a prototype?

Answer 86

the prototype is an average representation of the object in memory.

Question 87

explain the multiple trace memory model:

Answer 87

the multiple-trace memory model is where traces of each individual experience are recorded in memory;

this distinguished between Primary and secondary memory

Question 88

what is a probe in multiple-trace memory model?

Answer 88

a probe is an active representation of an experience” in primary memory

Question 89

explain what the echo in multiple-trace memory model is:

Answer 89

the echo is like when we listen to a choir… we hear multiple voices… when having a prototype that “sounds the same” as all the other voices in the choir… but think about that as a memory, when the memory is similar to a lot of other memories the choir starts to sing

Question 90

the echo sent out by secondary memory contains what the distortions all had in common, this makes :

Answer 90

the prototype easy to recognized when you havent even seen it in the first place.

Question 91

what are context effects:

Answer 91

context effects are the change in perception of a visual componant of a scene based on the surrounding information and the observer’s prior knowledge.

Question 92

explain the moon illusion.

Answer 92

moon illusion is the tendancy for the moon to appear different in size depending on whether it is near the horizionor high in the sky.

Apparent distance theory : the moon on the horizin is perceived as farther away because it can be compared to distance cues on the earths surface

Question 93

what did the Gestalt movement beleive ?

Answer 93

the gestalt movement beleived that perception is holistic in nature rather than atomistic and that the grouping of visual feathures to form a whole follows certain organizational principles.

Question 94

principle of experience:

Answer 94

visual componants are grouped together based on prior experience and knowledge of the observer

Question 95

Principle of similarity:

Answer 95

visual elements are grouped togehter based on similarity (shape, size, colour, orientation)

Question 96

principle of proximity

Answer 96

visual elements are grouped together based on how close they are to one another

Question 97

priciple of symmetry:

Answer 97

summetrical lines are perceived as going together

Question 98

principle of parallelism:

Answer 98

lines are parallel or similar in orientation are perceived as going together.

Question 99

regions usually perceived as the figures are the ones with higher ____ meaning:

Answer 99

denitivity. meaning those that appear more familiar and meaningful to the observer.

Question 100

Gibsons theory of ecological optics:

Answer 100

perception results from direct contact of the sensory organs with stimulus energy emanating from the environment.

Question 101

an important goal of perception is ___

Answer 101

action

Question 102

what us the ambient optical array (AOA) ?

Answer 102

it is all the visual information that is present at t particular point of view, the patterns of light reflected from surfaces and objects at a given point of observation

Question 103

In the ambient optical array (AOA) what is transformation?

Answer 103

it is the change in the AOA as an individual moves through space.

Question 104

in the ambient optical array, what is the optic flow feild?

Answer 104

is the continually changing pattern of information on the AOA

Question 105

What are gradient of texture density?

Answer 105

they are incremental changes in the pattern on a surface that provide information about its angle or slant.

Question 106

what is topoligical breakage?

Answer 106

it is the discontinuity created by the intersection of two textures, which gives us useful information about edges of objects.

Question 107

what is scatter-reflection

Answer 107

it is the degree to which light scatters when reflected from a surface, which tells us about the smoothness of a surface

Question 108

explain the intentional binding effect:

Answer 108

events that take place after one has taken some action are perceived as occurring sooner than they actually did.

this provides another example of how action influences perception

Question 109

what is the modality appropriateness hypothesis?

Answer 109

the modality appropriateness hypothesis posits that different senses are better at processing different stimuli, therefore depending on the circumstances, different sensory modalities will dominate at different times

Question 110

what is the Visual prepotency effect?

Answer 110

it is the hypothesis that the visual system dominates the other senses when it comes to perceptual processing.

Question 111

the ______ is the auditory experience of the syllable “da” when seeing a mouth silently saying “ga” while at the same time hearing a voice say “ba”

Answer 111

the McGurk effect

Question 112

why doesnt food taste the same when you have a cold…

Answer 112

because the contribution of smell is important

Question 113

how can visual information change what we taste?

Answer 113

if we see orange juice with gross colored food colouring, well then we will think it tastes gross

Question 114

what is selective attention?

Answer 114

it is attending to relevant information and ognoring irrelevant information.
-early research on attention was driven by practical problem experienced by armed forces personnel

Question 115

what is Dichotic listening task?

Answer 115

participants are exposed to two verbal messages simultanously and are required to answer questions posed in only one of the messages

Question 116

what is the cocktail party phenominom?

Answer 116

it is the ability to attend to one conversation when many other conversations are going on around you.

Question 117

what is selective looking?

Answer 117

it occurs when we are exposed to two events simultaneously but attend to only one of them

Question 118

what is the early selection view of attention?

Answer 118

attention can effectively prevent early perceptual processing of irrelevent distractions

Question 119

what is the late selection view of attention?

Answer 119

both relevant and irrelevant stimuli are percieved

participants must actively ignore the irrelevant stimuli

it is studied with the stroop task

Question 120

what is the stroop task?

Answer 120

It’s a naming task where in which names are printed in colors other than the colors the name

Question 121

differnces between controlled process and automatic process in the stroop task?

Answer 121

automatic process is like reading whereas controlled process is like color naming

Question 122

what brain areas are involved in the stroop task?

Answer 122

the dorsolateral prefontal cortex and the anterior cingulate cortex

Question 123

the dorsolateral prefontal cortex favours the “

Answer 123

selection of task-relevant information

Question 124

the anterior congulate cortex is one part of a network responsible for:

Answer 124

attentional control

Question 125

spatial attention is like a spotlight that we shine on an object when we select it for more complex and conscious processing is called:

Answer 125

the spotlight metaphor

Question 126

Endogenous shift of attention are :

Answer 126

voluntary movements

Question 127

Exogenous shifts of attention are :

Answer 127

involuntary mouvements triggered by external stimuli

Question 128

the diversion of attention of attention by a stimulus so powerful that it compels us to notice it even when our attention is focused on something else is called:

Answer 128

Attention capture

Question 129

what is the periphreal cueing paradigm?

Answer 129

a test in which light lfashes in the periphery and is followed by a target either in the same “cued) location or a different (uncued) location

Question 130

what is Inattention Blindness?

Answer 130

failure to attend to events that we might be expected to notice

Question 131

what is Deja Vu

Answer 131

Deja Vu is the impression that you have already experienced the situation in which you find yourself, along with the sense that this is not the case.

Question 132

who is more likely to experience Deja Vu?

Answer 132

2 out of three people experience deja vu and one that is higher on the socio-economic scale, better educated and more widely travelled is more likely to experience it

Question 133

What is Attention Capture?

Answer 133

Attention Captuire is attending to events that we might be expected to notice

Question 134

the flanker task is used to study attention capture, explain what this experiment is.

Answer 134

in this experiment, participants may be influenced by an irrelevant stimulus presented beside the target.

Question 135

what are domain specific modules?

Answer 135

Domain-specific modules is the hypothesis that parts of the brain may be specialized for particular tasks, such as recognizing faces

Question 136

the capacity model and Structural Limits of Dual tasks and the limits of attention mean that:

Answer 136

Capacity model attention has limited capacity and Structural limts: interference between tasks is more likely if they share the same processing resources.

Question 137

Central Bottleneck:

Answer 137

attention requires a central processor that can process only information that is relevant to one task at a time

Question 138

Divided attention means:

Answer 138

attending to more than one thing at a time

Question 139

Mind Wondering:

Answer 139

a shift in mental resources away from the task at hand towards internal thoughts

Question 140

how do we measure mind wondering ?

Answer 140

Sustained attention to response task (SART)

Question 141

what is the attention blink?

Answer 141

The attention blink is a the failure to notice the second of two stimuli presented within 550 milliseconds of each other.

It’s measured using rapid serial visual presentation (RSVP) trials, which are the presentation of a series of stimuli in quick succession.

Question 142

what is task switching?

Answer 142

Task switching is changing from working on one task to working on another; usually studied in situations in which the switch is involuntary.

Question 143

what is a “set”

Answer 143

A set is a temporary, top-down organization in the brain that facilitates some response while inhibiting others in order to achieve a certain goal; alsoo referred to as “mental set”

Question 144

explain Switch cost:

Answer 144

switch cost is the finding that performance declines immediately on switching tasks.

Question 145

what is Susutained attention?

Answer 145

sustained attention is the act of focusing on a single task for a prolonged period of time.

Question 146

Explain Vigilance:

Answer 146

Vigilance is externally imposed sustained attention.

Question 147

What was the Mackworth Clock Task?

Answer 147

A labratory study where participants were asked to monitor a line moving in discrete steps around an imaginary circle and press a button whenever infrequent “skips” occured

Question 148

what is Vigilance decrement?

Answer 148

Vigilance decrement is the decline in performance over time in vigilance tasks.

Question 149

what is the overload view and the underload view?

Answer 149

in the overload view, tasks are too demanding and resources become depleted whereas underload view the task is not demanding enough to hold the attention

Question 150

What is covert visual attention?

Answer 150

Covert visual attention is attending to an object without moving one’s eye.

Question 151

what is overt attention?

Answer 151

overt attention is attending to something with eye movement.

Question 152

what is the sequential attention hypothesis?

Answer 152

the sequential attention hypothesis posits a tight relationship between covert and overt visual attenetion, whereby covert attention is shifted first, and overt eye movement follows.

Question 153

what do Findlay and Gilchrist say about overt and covert attention?

Answer 153

that in most cases overt and covert attention move together, and that researchers should focus on studying overt attention because of its critical role in everyday attending.

Question 154

what are saccades?

Answer 154

they are the rapid, jerky movement made as the eye scans an image.

Question 155

what is fixation?

Answer 155

is holding the eye reletively still in order to maintain an image on the fovea.

Question 156

what is a Nystagmus?

Answer 156

is a small, continuous movement made during fixation.

Question 157

what are Regressions?

Answer 157

they are right and left movements of the eyes during reading, directing them to previously read text

Question 158

what is the moving window technique?

Answer 158

the moving window technique is a method of determining how much visual information can be taken in durring a fixation, in which the reader is prevented from seeing information beyond a certain distance from the current fixation

Question 159

what are smooth pursuit movements?

Answer 159

they are movements of the eye that enable the viewer to maintain fixation on a moving object

Question 160

________________plays an important role in object and scene viewing

Answer 160

task-related knowledge

Question 161

the _____ is the sustained and steady eye gaze prior to an action or behaviour

Answer 161

quiet eye; expert athletes use this

Question 162

what is the location surpression hypothesis?

Answer 162

it is a two-stage explanation for the quiet eye phenomenon

• In the preperation stage, the quiet eye maximizes information about the target
• during the location stage, vision is surpressed to optimize execution of an action or behaviour.