Final (new stuff) Flashcards
Diacrital marks:
Symbols that indicate the correct pronunciation of letters in a particular word.
Articulation:
The production of a language’s sounds.
Recursion:
The capacity of any one component (e.g. phrase or sentence) to contain any number of similar components.
psycholinguistics:
The branch of cognitive psychology interested in how we comprehend, produce, acquire and represent (in the mind) language.
Phoneme:
Smallest unit in language. Phonemes are combined to form morphemes.
Morpheme:
The smallest unit in language that carries meaning.
Syntax:
The rules that govern how words and sentences are structured.
Semantics:
The meaning of words and sentences.
Tree diagram:
A description of a process that proceeds from one level at which a number of relationships are simultaneously present to other levels at which those relationships are ordered serially.
Language:
Open-ended verbal communication that consist of all possible sentences.
Speech:
Those sentences that are actually spoken; only a small subset of language.
Phrase structure rules:
Rules describing the way symbols can be rewritten as other symbols.
Grammatical transformations:
Rules operating on entire strings of symbols to convert them to new strings.
Competence vs performance:
We may have an internalized system of rules that constitutes a basic linguistic competence, but this competence may not always be reflected in our actual use of the language (performance).
Deep and surface structure:
The sequence of words that make up a sentence constitutes a surface structure that is derived from an underlying deep structure.
Innateness hypothesis:
The hypothesis that children innately possess a language acquisition device that comes equipped with principles of universal grammar.
“poverty of the stimulus” argument
The argument that the linguistic environment to which child is exposed is not good enough to enable language acquisition on its own.
Language acquisition device (LAD) and universal grammar hypothesis:
The hypothesis that children possess a language acquisition device containing general principles that apply to any natural language (universal grammar)
Minimalism:
The belief that linguistic competence has only those characteristics that are absolutely necessary.
Parameter-setting hypothesis:
The hypothesis that language acquisition involves the setting of various parameters contained within a universal grammar (e.g. position of verb in relation to object.) A parameter is a universal aspect of language that can take on one of a small set of possible values.
Concealing function hypothesis:
The hypothesis that language is a kind of code, and that the parameters st for one language serve to conceal its meaning from the speakers of another language.
Mirror neurons:
Neurons that fire not only when performing an action, but also when observing an action. Broca’s area in monkeys contains mirror neurons that fire not only when the animal makes grasping movements, but also when it observes other animals making those movements.
Parental reformulations:
Adult reformations of children’s speech. They are negative in that they inform children thet they have made a mistake and positive in that they provide examples of correct speech.
Syntactic development:
Development of the ability to orginize words into grammatical sentences.
Given-new contract:
a tacit agreement whereby the speaker agrees to connect new information to what the listener already knows.
Code model of communication:
A model of communication based on the information-processing theory.
Inferential model of communication:
A model of communication based on Grice’s inferential theory.
co-operative principle:
The assumptions that the speaker intends to say something concise, truthful, relevant, and unambiguous.
Conversational maxims:
Say no more than is necessary (maxim of quantity);
be truthful (maxim of quality);
be relevant (maxim of relation);
and avoid ambiguity (maxim of manner).
Figurative language:
Various figures of speech such as metaphor and irony.
pretense theory of irony:
When speaking ironically, people are only pretending to mean what they say.
Hesitation pauses:
Pauses in speech, often characterised by disfluences such as um or uh.
Egocentric speech:
Speech that does not take the listener’s perspective into acount.
inner speech:
Speech for oneself that regulates throught.
Zone of proximal development:
Defined by Vygotsky as “the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem-solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem-solving under adult guidance or in collaberation with more capable peers.
Metalinguistic awareness:
The ability to talk about language itself, without worrying about what it refers to.
Literacy:
The ability to read and write; sometimes extended to include the metalinguistic ability to talk or write about text.
Surface dyslexia:
A form of dyslexia affecting only the ability to recognize words as entire units; the ability to read words letter by letter remains intact.
Phonological dyslexia:
A form of dyslexia affecting only the ability to read letter-by-letter; the ability to recognize words as entire units remains intact.
Dual route theory:
The theory there are two separate pathways for reading, one for comparing words to a mental dictionary and another for converting letters into sounds together to make words.
Idea density:
The number of distinct ideas present in a sentence or paragraph.
Safir-Whorf Hypothesis:
The hypothesis that two languages may be so different from one another as to make their native speakers’ experience of the world QUALITATIVELY different.
linguistic relativity:
The notion that two languages may be so different from each other as to make their native speakers’ experience of the world QUITE different from each other.
Polysemy
The existence of multiple meanings for one word.
Basic colour terms hypothesis (berlin-Kay order)
The hypothesis that there is an invariant sequence regulating the emergence of colour terms in any language.
Opponent process theory of colour vision:
The hypothesis that colour vision is based on three pairs of antagonistic processes.
Intrinsic frame of reference:
Spatial relationships are based solely on the relationships between the objects being described.
Relative frame of reference:
Spatial relationships are described relative to an observer’s viewpoint.
Absolute frame of reference:
Spatial relationships are described in terms of an invariant set of coordinates.
Gestalt switch:
A sudden change in the way information is organized.
Insight problem:
A problem that we must look at from a different angle before we can see how to solve it.
Production thinking (Wertheimer):
Thinking based on a grasp of the general principles that apply in the situation at hand.
Structurally blind/reproductive thinking:
The tendency to use familiar or routine procedures, reproducing thinking that was appropriate for the current situation.
Analysis of the situation:
Determining what functions the objects in the situation have and how they can be used to solve the problem.
Functional fixedness (Dunker):
The inability to see beyond the most common use of a particular object and recognize that it could also perform the function needed to solve a problem also, the tendency to think about objects based on the function for which they were designed.
Hints:
A hint must be consistent with the direction that the person’s thinking is taking, and cannot be useful unless it responds to a difficulty that the person has already experienced.
Feeling of “Warmth”:
The feeling that many people have as they approach the solution to a problem (i.e getting warm”)
Feeling of knowing:
The feeling that you will be able to solve a particular problem.
Progress monitoring theory:
The theory that we monitor our progress on a problem, and when we reach an insightful solution.
Representational change theory:
The theory that insight requires a change in the way participants represent the problem to themselves.
Constraint relaxation:
An aspect of representational change theory: the removal of assumptions that are blocking problem solution.
Chunk decomposition:
An aspect of change theory: parts of the problem that are recognize as belonging together are separated into “chunks” and thought about independently.
Einstein effect (Luchins):
The tendency to respond inflexibly to a particular type of problem; also called a rigid set.
Negative transfer:
The tendency to respond with previously learned rule sequences even when they are inappropriate.
Strong but wrong routines:
Overwhelmed response sequence that we follow even when we intend to do something else.
Mindfulness vs mindlessness (Langer):
Openness to alternative possibilities versus the tendency to behave as if the situation had only one possible interpretation.
Artificial Intelligence:
The “intelligence of computer programs designed to solve problems in ways that resemble human approaches to problem-solving.
Heuristic:
A problem-solving procedure (typically a rule of thumb or shortcut); heuristics can often be useful, but do not guarantee solutions.
Algorithm:
An unambiguous solution procedure (e.g. the rules governing long division).
Subgoal:
A goal derived from the original goal, the solution of which leads to the solution of the problem as a whole.
Evaluation Function:
The process whereby a plan is created, carried out, and evaluated.
Problem space:
The representation of a problem, including the goal to be reached and the various ways of transforming the given situation into the solution.
search tree:
a representation of all the possible moves branching out from the initial state of the problem.
General problem Solver (GPS):
A computer program used to perform non-systematic searches
Toy problems:
Problems used to analysis the problem-solving process.
Production rules:
A production rules consists of a condition and an action (C–>A)
Means-end analysis :
The procedure used by General Problem Solver to reduce differences between current and goal states.
Goal stack:
The final goal to be reached is on the bottom of the stack, with the subgoals oiled on top of it in which they are to be attained.
Thinking aloud:
Concurrent verbalization the verbalization of information as the participant is attending to it.
Historical accounts, observation of ongoing scientific investigations, laboratory studies and computational models:
Different methods for studying problem-solving in science.
