Midterm #1 Flashcards
“Airs, Waters, Places”: spring water
rock springs: too hard, too many minerals
–> best is from high ground, flowing down from the hills
–> best also if facing the east winds
“The Sacred Disease”: variations in age
–> children were more susceptible because of thinner blood vessels, more easily clogged
–> elderly less susceptible because of less blood (dries out over time), so phlegm has nothing to block
——> note: in winter, the elderly being too cold could be more dangerous, as phlegm would become more sticky
“Regimen in Acute Diseases”: pneumonia
pain on both sides of the body, lungs
–> different from modern pneumonia
–> excess of blood, phlegm
Ebers Papyrus
Egyptian, c. 1534 BCE (New Kingdom); largest surviving Egyptian medical papyrus
–> collection of ~1000 texts, over 110 pages, including spells, hymns, prescriptions, and stories
–> both diagnostic and prognostic; detailed, temporally aware
“The Oath”: controversies
–> authorship: unknown
–> contradictions with mainstream Hippocratic practices (no euthanasia, no abortions, no surgery) and other treatises
why seasonal mortality?
travel, military campaigns, and time spent as a community in summer meant a greater spread of infectious diseases and introduction to new pathogens
–> population was not as interconnected as today
phren (pl. phrenes)
chest / lungs / diaphragm; pl. specifically means lungs
–> psychic function: deliberation, reflection, thinking
foci of Ebers Papyrus
–> less reliance on divine intervention, more on anatomical processes & specificity
–> consideration of passageways / “flow”; illness is a blockage
–> recipes with ratios of animal ingredients, especially those local
–> spells, similar to Babylon
“Regimen in Acute Diseases”: phrenitis
“brain fever”: inflammation of the head, associated with heat and manic episodes (mental illness)
–> excess of bile
population of Rome
at least 1-2 million in city in 1st century CE (30% enslaved); upwards of 55-65 million across empire in 14 CE
“Airs, Waters, Places”: mixed water sources
powers governed by whichever is mostly prominent, or is the majority of the composition
“The Nature of Man”: single-substance theories
author argues against Presocratic single-substance theories, saying thinkers are too absorbed
–> argument from pain: pain is from separation, so how could we feel pain if we were all the same?
–> argument from generation: reproduction requires two separate beings
–> argument for doctors: how are diagnoses supposed to be made if everything is the same?
–> health is a balance of multiple substances with individual properties; a proportional balance must be held between them, and pain is from an imbalance
Empedocles
Presocratic, mid 5th century BCE; considered the strangest and most spectacular
–> nonbeing is impossible: “nothing” does not exist, even after death
–> everything is in a constant state of change
–> everything is made of a different mixture of the six basic entities: elements (air, fire, water, earth) and forces (love –> bring together, strife –> tear apart)
–> body as part of nature, so disease as well? and health as a mixture of causes?
“Regimen in Acute Diseases”: pleurisy
pain on one side of the body, lungs
–> empyema (excess of pus, pl. empyemata)
–> excess of blood and phlegm
“The Nature of Man”: humors in later thought
–> influential in future world cultures
–> power of symmetry: humors lasted probably because of the number 4, like the 4 seasons; 4 gospels; 4 stages of life
–> later changes: Christian period would adopt belief that some people naturally possessed humoral imbalances, contributing to personality
“The Sacred Disease”: the brain
the brain regarded as the seat of comprehension, rather than the heart
–> movement from cardiocentric to encephalocentric medical theory
–> epilepsy as a loss of consciousness because of phlegm in the brain
–> compare to phrenes: lungs, diaphragm no longer able to possess the function of thought
“Asclepiad”
term used by doctors who traced lineage through Podalirius, Machaon to the legendary healer
–> anyone who “perform[s] the medical art”
Thales
Presocratic; everything is made of water
–> supposedly able to predict eclipses
–> died by falling into a well, so consumed in thought
divination
process of understanding the will of the gods through signs
–> e.g. lightning, dice, patterns of oil on water, smoke patterns
–> splotched / pockmarked animal livers would indicate what message was being delivered by which god to some patient
–> did divination give birth to modern diagnostic medicine (looking at the body for signs?)
Cnidus
town on Turkish peninsula, close to Cos; home of rival school of medicine to Hippocratic
Gula
Babylon; ancient goddess to whom medical spells were addressed
–> given votive objects, often in the shape of dogs, as a sign of thanks
–> why dogs? cleanliness from licking themselves?
the Hippocratic Corpus
group of ~60 treatises attributed to the school of Cos, though not Hippocrates himself
–> enormous variety in type (aphorisms, letters, instructions, ideas), opinion (do not agree), authorship
–> preserves competitive nature of rival groups of doctors, almost all from Classical Athens
Hippocratic doctors & drugs
wariness; using medicine before identifying a disease, or before necessary, would inhibit the ability to study and learn from course of disease
“The Sacred Disease”: respiration
blood vessels carry blood and pneuma throughout the body
–> motion, consciousness depend on constant movement of pneuma
–> respiratory theory: pneuma enters body through mouth and nose, then flows to (slightly) brain, stomach, lungs, and blood vessels, through body, and back up to brain
chronic
disease that unfolds over time
Republican Rome
c. 3rd - 1st century BCE
“The Sacred Disease”: treatment
anything that is heating, drying in the diet could be applied
–> then onto surgery, vomiting (maybe barley-gruel?)
–> doctors would not need to use magic spells if they only understood diaita
“The Canon”: What makes a good medical student?
similar to a plant: must have the correct characteristics and circumstances (talent, teaching, and environment in which to learn)
–> exclusionary; preservation of medicine as a techne, only for the few
“Airs, Waters, Places”: environmental determinism of Asians
Asia (actually the Middle East, approx. Turkey/Iran): problem is in not experiencing enough variation, so not building toughness / resilience
–> people have no presuffering, no war-like qualities; more likely to be subjugated to a monarchy
“Regimen in Acute Diseases”: The 4 Acute Diseases
phrenitis, causus fever, pleurisy, and pneumonia
“The Oath”
themes: religion, medical education, behavioral guidelines
–> swear by gods to always use “powers of healing” as best as possible
–> medical teaching must be free, but only given to sons of your teacher, yourself, or other initiates
Late Antiquity / “Christian” Era
c. 4th - 6th century CE
sympathy
basis of ancient magic; Greek, “things are experienced together”
–> experience of something in microcosm reflects to macrocosm
–> manipulation of small to treat large (e.g. voodoo dolls)
“The Nature of Man”: blood vessels
–> quickest, most efficient way to relieve excess humors is through bloodletting, usually until unconsciousness
–> vessels were “phlebes” (tubes), through which substances slowly oozed
four pairs of phlebes, moving downwards from head:
1. head –> feet
2. head –> penis –> feet
3. head –> lungs
4. head –> arms –> hands
blood created by consumption of food, conversion in liver; circulated, then absorbed at the end of the canal
–> one model among many, probably as part of competition; shows significance of understanding flow
acute
disease with a “quick crisis”
thumos
vital energy inside of a person, which escapes upon death
–> emotive and psychic power; not quite “soul”, but animating force
“Regimen in Acute Diseases”: diaita for acute diseases
barley-gruel used to ease patient between stages of regimen change
–> could be thick or thin, somewhere between a drink and a food
–> both cooling and thirst-quenching, although could soak up too much moisture if taken in excess
–> might increase sputum because of density; could cause “cold feet” (death)
Democritus
Presocratic; everything is made of atoms (Gr., “uncuttable things”)
cultural opinion on regime
although medicine was not respected, diaita was in high fashion
–> emphasis on individual
–> social empowerment: one can heal oneself through understanding diaita
–> possibility of avoiding doctors, medicine entirely if optimal diaita maintained
personality: excess of phlegm
calm, forgetful
life expectancy
difficult to estimate, but known to be short (~28 years)
–> attributed to high infant mortality rates (~30%)
process of mummification
helped expand anatomical knowledge
1. purify in water with dissolved natron (crystallized chemical)
2. remove brain, fill skull with sawdust / dust / resin
3. incision in lower stomach; remove all organs, except for heart
4. stuff body to absorb moisture
5. soak body in natron for ~40 days
6. put body in resin, bandages; body will have shrunk to ~45% of original size
“Regimen in Acute Diseases”: metabole
Gr., “change”; specifically those external
–> harmful if in excess in either direction
–> fits with other contemporary texts (e.g. political change - too fast would be harmful)
“The Regimen for Health”: losing weight
- take only one meal
- go without baths
- sleep on a hard bed (make the body harder)
- wear fewer clothes
epileipsis
Gr., “epilepsy”; focus point of “The Sacred Disease”
–> different from our modern perception of the disease
–> literally “attack”, from the verb “to grab hold of”; being seized by some god or demon
–> any medical condition where one may lose consciousness (seizure)
Cos vs. Cnidus
Euryphon: to Cnidus was Hippocrates was to Cos
–> all writings from Cnidan school have been lost, and only Coan refutes remain
–> in “Regimen for Acute Diseases”, it seems that doctors in Cnidus were more collaborative
“The Sacred Disease”: types of madness
excess of phlegm: quiet, sad, depression (melancholy)
excess of bile: manic, anger, volume
excess of blood: nightmares, bloodshot eyes
“Airs, Waters, Places”: rain water
healthy if fresh, not healthy if still
“The Sacred Disease”
text considering how epilepsy, the “sacred disease”, was actually of natural origin (like all others)
images for diaita
- “molding the body”, like a sculptor, to the desired appearance, such as through regime and athletics
- “pre-suffering”, or no-pain no-gain; regime requires some unpleasantness to be balanced, and more unpleasantness if imbalance is extreme
- “guarding” or “protecting” body from illness, like some sort of self-amulet
personality: excess of blood
friendly, rose-tinted
“The Regimen for Health”
authorship not known, but possibly also Polybus (mentions of seasonal variation, style of “speaking to public”)
“The Regimen for Health”: exceptions
infants: naturally warm and moist, but recommendations are also warm and wet because bodies are not yet ready for rapid change
women: naturally colder, wetter than men, so regimens should be prescribed accordingly
–> male body treated as norm, female as either a mirror or a lacking-version
“The Nature of Man”: yellow bile
xanthē chloē: Gr., “yellow bile”
–> hot and dry; excess in summer
–> probably pus, or some other secretion
“Regimen in Acute Diseases”
also called “Against the Cnidans” or “In Praise of Barley-Gruel”
–> treatise written for other doctors: lots of technical language, recommendations, and mentions of organs
–> rejection of ideas by Cnidans
pneuma
Gr., “air”, pron. “pah-neigh-oo-ma”
–> “life function”: that which gives us spirit
–> cool, so helps establish balance in the warm body
treatise
piece of medical writing/hypothesis
How can we determine the size of ancient populations?
census records; cemeteries; skeletal evidence; archaeological remains (houses, housing density); literary records, comparisons b/w cities
Classical Athens
c. 5th - 4th century BCE
“The Canon”: How can reputation be protected?
–> no government legislation means anyone can practice (bad)
–> need for initiation into service and education, almost clan-like in nature
Babylon
present-day Iraq, ~53 miles south of Baghdad
–> massive impression left because of quantity of documents written on clay, many still unread
“The Canon”
Gr., “law”
Asks the questions:
1. What makes a good doctor?
2. What makes a good medical student?
3. How can doctors protect reputation?
The Hippocratic Tree
tree under which Hippocrates taught on the island of Cos
–> strips now taken, planted at medical schools to convey prestige and knowledge
“The Sacred Disease”: cause of disease
Why seizures? –> phlegm blocks passage of pneuma to body, cutting off “life force”
–> phlegm, bile, and blood mentioned, but never referred to as humors
–> overcome by having natural warmth of blood dislodge, dispense the phlegm and restore balance
amulets
necklaces worn to protect against disease
–> lamella, or thin strips of lead, would have prayers / curses / thoughts written on them –> would be wrapped and worn
–> evidence of continuance in turning to magical, religious means to protect against illness
techne
a skill, science, or art; a body of knowledge that is rational
–> evolution of medicine as a trade, not rooted in divine intervention
“The Canon”: response to contemporary issues
consideration of how knowledge should be protected, because no formal regulation existed for medicine
–> anyone could be a doctor; many “actors” brought scorn upon the trade
the Presocratics
modern category of philosophers (really thinkers, as philosophy yet to exist) who worked before / contemporary to Socrates
–> thinker was “master of universe”, had to consider big questions of origin with showmanship and style
–> themes: physis (Gr., “nature”, pron. “phoo-sis”)
–> Thales, Democritus, Empedocles
Cos
island, known for Hippocratic school of medicine
–> close to Turkey and peninsula of Cnidus
prognosis
state in the future (what is going to happen?)
making of Hippocratic Corpus
- loose grouping of people, texts circulating a variety of ideas
- process of compilation, criticism (i.e. at Library of Alexandria)
- printing (~1500 CE, after invention of printing press)
“Airs, Waters, Places”: winds
south: illnesses associated with flow - asthma, diarrhea, dysentery, heavy menstruation, miscarriages, pus-related
north: illness associated wtih dryness, hardness - constipation, infertility, bile-related
east: temperate, spring-like, healthy
west: damp, autumn-like, sickly
–> exception: a disease occurring in the wrong location must be extra strong
“The Sacred Disease”: asthma
excess of phlegm in the heart, lungs
–> “strangulation” (same as today)
opening medicine
practice mentioned in “Regimen in Acute Diseases”, used by Cnidan doctors
–> milk administered at the onset of any disease
–> frowned upon by Coan doctors, as it would not allow for progress of disease to be followed
“Airs, Waters, Places”: snow water
always unhealthy
–> freezing = loss of the “lightest” part of water, and melting to drink heavy water is unhealthy
health and balance
health is found as a balance of qualities - not too hot or too cold, too fat or too skinny
“The Nature of Man”: the humors
humor: constituent substance of the body; “moisture”
–> exists in many interpretations in the Corpus and beyond; this version “wins” because Galen adopts it in the 2nd century CE, bringing it into later Arabic and Western cultures
–> the four humors: blood, yellow bile, black bile, and phlegm
“The Nature of Man”: blood
haima: Gr., “blood”
–> hot and wet; excess in spring
–> also used to describe the transportation method for other humors
“Airs, Waters, Places”: environmental determinism of Scythians
Scythians: nomads in Central Asia –> too moist, too cold, and so suffering from massive infertility (men do not have enough heat)
–> Samromatae: the Amazons (primarily matriarchic society, or at least one where women had power) - a group of unnatural Scythians
–> men were infertile because they rode horses too often, getting vascular veins in the feet; these veins were removed by bloodletting behind the ear, which also leaked out semen
“The Canon”: What makes a good doctor?
someone with knowledge (techne), not just opinions
Podalirius and Machaon
doctors in the Iliad
–> more respected, higher in hierarchy than Babylonian asû, but also had to serve as soldiers (not an independent profession)
–> sons of Asclepius, the son of Apollo and healer taught by Chiron
–> brothers, so medicinal knowledge was still familial
“The Regimen for Health”: clothing
olive oil should be put on the clothes (before / after washing) in summer
–> addition of moisture?
trends in Hippocratic medicine
–> body as part of nature, not just divine
–> health as a balance of mixtures
–> timing and rhythm used to diagnose, treat, give advice
–> regime (diaita)
–> defense of medicine as a techne
anatomy in ancient Egypt
massive quantity of written, physical evidence preserved
–> more complex understanding than in Babylon, shown through hieroglyphs actually in shape of the body part
“Airs, Waters, Places”: water
one of the only mentions of water in the Hippocratic Corpus –> default drink was wine, so why care?
–> author may have been traveling to regions without constant access to wine, so had to consider “powers” of what was accessible
–> “powers”: hot/cold, clear/cloudy, thin/thick, soft (low mineral)/hard, odorless/smelly, fresh/salty
–> sick man would need to take the principle of opposition into account when drinking (healthy could do as he pleased)
Diagnostic Handbook
Babylonian, ~11th century BCE; 40 tablets containing about 3,000 phrases
–> some parts diagnostic, some prognostic; sometimes written in code
–> not individualized; basic guide for asû, who could only identify illness superficially (using senses, excretions)
–> assumption that humans operate on same universal laws
diet
mostly bread, grains (wheat), vegetables, diluted wine
–> little meat (preferred to sacrifice to gods)
“Aphorisms”
aphorism: “quotable quote”, or a piece of wisdom set apart from the rest
–> collection of wise sayings from doctors of the period
–> Hippocratic hierarchy: change diet > medication > surgery > cauterization
–> emphasis on regime, health as a balance, and the sense of timing; preferable circumstances necessary for good healing to occur
–> “Life is short, science is long”
landscape pockets
“Airs, Waters, Places”; Greece composed of many different areas, with many different climate conditions –> each would have its own characteristic diseases
prescriptions
recipes of natural ingredients, usually prepared by the asû or a specifically designated group of women
–> not personalized
–> recipes often “traveling”, or found in different regions at different times - probably associated with traders and migration patterns
asû
Babylonian; mix of doctor (healing powers) and exorcist (magic powers)
Hellenistic Greece
c. 3rd - 2nd century BCE
Code of Hammurabi
set of 282 laws detailing medical responsibilities
–> named after King in ~1900 BCE
–> malpractice: asû punished if his surgery causes harm, especially on an enslaved
–> regulation of fees: protection of both asû from cheating and patients from overcharge
–> responsibility taken by individual who causes an injury (respect to gods)
–> early mention of veterinary medicine
cuneiform
script language of ancient Babylon
–> logo/syllabic
–> named for “wedge-like” incisions in tablets
Homer
c. 8th - 9th century BCE; author of the Iliad and Odyssey
cardiocentric hypothesis
Egyptian; “all comes to the heart”
–> in contrast with encephalocentric cultures of the past
impact of nutrition on menstruation
delayed onset because of malnutrition (~14/15 years)
–> contributed to high infant mortality rate, as “peak” birthing years would occur later than when young women were married and socially expected to have children
“The Sacred Disease”: why some people, and not others?
Disease could be hereditary - a bad seed given to a bad child - or because something went wrong in the in-utero or post-birth cleansing process
–> insufficient cleansing (too little) would leave behind too much phlegm
–> overcleansing would leave behind too little phlegm to balance health
pushback against diaita
diaita was so fashionable as a concept that it received philosophical objections
–> Socrates: too much focus on the body, not enough focus on the mind
–> Plato: inaccessibility, socioeconomically, for some people to change their routines frequently
met (pl. metu)
Egyptian; concept of channels in the body, used to transport substances
–> non-specific: vessels, tendons, muscles, nerves, all transporting a variety of things
–> example of early interest in vascular system; metu meet at the heart
authorship of Hippocratic Corpus
authors are never named, and most treatises are by different people
–> only one known is Polybus, of “The Nature of Man”
–> some pieces, like Aphorisms, could have many authors put together
–> some works display signs of being of the same author (similar style, ideas)
“The Sacred Disease”: variations in winds
southerly wind, from Africa: “flow wind”, accelerating flow in body and causing seizures
northerly wind, from Europe: dry, cold, bitter, so not related to flow
–> any quick change in winds could cause a seizure
“The Nature of Man”: black bile
melaina chloē: Gr., “black bile”
–> cold and dry; excess in autumn
–> fabricated by author, although reason is unknown; could be clotted blood? growths on body (melanoma)? “black” as representation of evil?
Homeric Greece
c. 9th - 8th century BCE
Iliad: shooting of Menelaos
first incidence of a distinction between a mortal and non-mortal wound
- sucking of wound: why?
–> removal of poison
–> cleansing (like dogs licking themselves)
–> bloodletting, to remove excess blood
–> saliva theory: idea taken from ancient Egypt, where spit had healing powers (think also, spit of Jesus)
–> doctor Machaon was “a man godlike” (not fully of his own techne)
cribra orbitalia
evidence of massive malnutrition; sponge-like appearance of tissue cavities around the eyes, caused by iron deficiency
–> “eye socket sieves”
–> appears in at least 85% of juveniles, 40% of males, 55% of females
major diseases in ancient Greece / Rome
–> lung diseases / respiratory problems (phthisis, tuberculosis)
–> malaria (“bad air”)
–> typhoid (contaminated water, then food)
seasonal mortality
fluctuations in frequency of deaths depending on season
–> modern day: stable
–> ancient world: peak in late summer / early autumn (Sep / Oct)
“The Regimen for Health”: seasonal variation
winter: regimen should be hot and dry (wine not diluted, bread, roasted meats, few vegetables, quick walks, fewer baths)
summer: regimen should be cold and wet (wine diluted, barley cake instead of bread, boiled meats, many vegetables, slow walks, many baths)
spring and fall: transitional periods, so regimen should also be transitional
Babylonian, Egyptian influence on Greek medicine
controversial debate: is it possible for Greece to not have been influenced?
–> racism in lack of due credit?
–> recipes probably traveled during period, spreading unintentionally
–> argument against: Greeks often refused to read other languages; huge misconceptions in other writings about Babylonian culture, which they would not have made if interacting
–> argument for: connectivity through trade routes must have led to some communication; stories passed through mixed families?
diagnosis
state in the present (what do you have?)
the “Homeric Question”
was Homer real, or even one person?
–> Iliad, Odyssey rather compilations of generations of storytelling
Hippocrates of Cos
so-called “father of medicine”, also written as Hippokrates
–> “Hippocrates the Asclepiad”, literally ‘descendent of Asclepius’ (doctors would trace back ancestry)
–> c. 460 - 370 BCE (Classical Athens)
–> son-in-law Polybus, who is the only attributed author in Corpus
–> mentioned by Plato, Aristotle as a prominent Athenian doctor
–> legend: refused offer to serve as royal doctor to king of Persia, on grounds of loyalty to Greece
diaita
the way you live your life
–> diet, regime, exercise, bathing, etc.
“The Sacred Disease”: against superstition
–> cheating people out of money for false services (knowledge was pure and should not cost money)
–> treatments by actors were insensible, ineffectual
–> theological argument: impious to suggest that a human healer could overpower the spirit of a god
–> theological argument: gods were purer than human beings, so how could their spirits pollute an individual?
Iliad
epic poem, telling story of the final year of the war between Greece and Troy (modern-day Turkey)
–> origin of disease as both natural and divine (“was it a long sickness, or did Artemis of the arrows…”)
“The Sacred Disease”: difference between religion and superstition
the text is not atheist; rather, the author wants to preserve the sanctity of religion
–> division between the natural and divine view of disease; division between piety and fear of the gods
–> liberating text for people who fell ill: disease detached from being culturally damning
“Airs, Waters, Places”: concept of race
not the same as today - certain categories, like black vs. white, didn’t exist, but stereotypes against certain ethnos (Gr., “peoples”) did help determine who was better than who
–> link of personality, politics to geography; more North = more civilized
–> adopted to serve future eras of colonialism
prescriptions - ingredient code names
some ingredients given “code names” to conceal identity, maintain the trade as a secret techne for its practitioners
“The Oath”: ancient vs. modern
similarities: idea of an “oath” (with punishment), medicine as a techne, intent for initiation, idea of secrecy
differences: no mention of abortion/euthanasia/surgery, lack of religious context, no mention of chastity/purity, no hereditary knowledge, knowledge now has a cost
–> religious inclusivity; generalization of “do not harm”; secrecy held to protect patient privacy, not medical knowledge as a whole
gastrointestinal issues in ancient Egypt
–> schistosomiasis: snail-fever; blood in urine, pain
–> parasitic worms
–> dracunculiasis: guinea-worm
major themes of the course
- What is a disease?
–> How does the qualification of a disease change throughout history?
–> How does the understanding of the origin of disease change throughout history? - Medicine as a techne
- Nature of scientific progress
–> change is not linear; ideas shift, sometimes falling out of fashion even when correct, until rediscovery
personality: excess of black bile
melancholy
Imperial Rome
c. 1st - 4th century CE
“On the Powers of Foods”
encyclopedic text by Galen during the Roman era; explains humor-related qualities of certain foods
–> comment on absences in “Regimen”: no theories about the relationship between the humors and food
–> idea had developed in intermediary period that humors arise from food, and so that humors can be adjusted by eating different things
–> example: watermelon is cooling and moist, cleansing and diuretic, but can produce “bad juices” via vomiting
“Airs, Waters, Places”: evaporation
lightest parts of water are taken up by the sun, leaving the heavy parts behind
–> boiling always makes water sweeter (contrary to idea of heavy vs. light)
“The Sacred Disease”: the vascular system
large number of tenuous, minor veins, and two major veins running through body
–> vena cava: “hollow vein”, transporting blood and pneuma
–> flow goes upward through body; major veins hit the liver and spleen
population of Athens
~30,000 in 508 BCE; ~27,000 in 400s BCE
–> citizens were only adult free males
“Regimen in Acute Diseases”: causus fever
“burning” bodily fever
–> excess of bile
“The Nature of Man”: external causes of disease
if outside of its related season, a disease caused by a certain humor could be because of problems with:
–> the individual “manner of life” (diaita)
–> the population air
showmanship in ancient medicine
part of income for doctors was from how illustrative their treatments would be
–> healing, spells likely performative; many read as symbolic songs or chants (repetition, wordplay)
Hippocratic “revolution”
the doctor must understand the individual situation and the timing, location, and season in order to make a proper diagnosis
“The Nature of Man”: phlegm
phlegma: Gr., “phlegm”
–> cold and wet; excess in winter
“Airs, Waters, Places”
–> authorship: possibly same as “The Sacred Disease”, or someone within that intellectual circle
–> written for traveling physicians (someone who needed to understand health in a geographical context)
“The Oath”: theories of origin
breakaway group of religious doctors, maybe of some minority or “mystery religion” (worshipping some other primary god than Zeus)
–> had to swear Oath to join sect, as it is similar to religious incantations
–> would fit with lack of surgery, as touching blood was religiously impure
–> theories in Oath fit with future religions (e.g. Christianity), so it persisted
Iliad: the body
“soma” (Gr., body) only applied to the dead; the living were more so a “collection of parts”
“The Nature of Man”
transcription of a lecture for a general audience, attributed to Polybus
–> author clearly influenced by Empedocles, in the sense of four elements being part of nature
–> arguments against single-substance theories; arguments for humoral composition and change
sources for ancient medicine
- oral/practical knowledge (lost to time)
- treatises (e.g. Hippocratic Corpus, Galen)
- encyclopedias (Late Antiquity)
- archaeological evidence (funerary monuments, surgical devices)
- inscriptions and papyrii (tombstones, Egyptian writings)
“Regimen in Acute Diseases”: the problem of change
a doctor must change a patient’s diaita to treat them, but a change made too suddenly will introduce more health problems than it cures
“The Nature of Man”: the Principle of Opposition
basic Hippocratic principle of treating some illness with a regime of the opposite qualities; re-obtaining balance by introducing new factors
personality: excess of yellow bile
daring, bitter
average ancient body dimensions
smaller, shorter than today
–> men: ~ 5’6”
–> women: ~5’2”
contrast of ancient and contemporary diet culture
ancient: you would not want to be too much of anything –> so neither too fat nor too thin
