Midterm 1 Flashcards
What is etiology?
The cause of it.
What is prognosis?
The short or long-term consequences.
What is epidemiology/prevalence?
How common it is?
What is the main diagnostic tool? When was it updated?
DSM-5 TR
Updated March 2022
What causes psychiatric disease? (4)
1) Genetics
2) Early life experiences
3) Stressful life events
4) Environmental influences on fetuses
What is the biopsychosocial model?
It attributes mental illness to complex factors (biological, psychological, and social factors).
Mental Health Stigma?
Historically viewed as abnormal behavior.
What is the medical model? (2)
1) Mental illness is diagnosable and is the similar to physical illness.
2) Genetics and biology play a role in symptom emergence.
What is overlapped in the DSM-5 TR?
The symptoms of mental illness.
What is the RDoC?
Research Domain Criteria Initiative
What is the negative valence on RDoC? (5)
1) Acute threat (fear)
2) Potential threat (anxiety)
3) Sustained threat
4) Loss
5) Frustrated Non-Reward
What is positive valence on RDoC? (5)
1) Approach motivation
2) Initial Responsiveness to reward
3) Sustained responsiveness
4) Reward learning
5) Habit
What is cognitive on RDoC?
1) Attention
2) Perception
3) Declarative memory
4) Language behavior
5) Cognitive control
6) Working memory
What is the social on RDoC? (4)
1) Affiliation and attachment
2) Social communication
3) Perception and self
4) Perception and others
What is arousal and regulation on RDoC? (3)
1) Arousal
2) Circadian Rhythms
3) Sleep and wakefulness
Directional Terminology Parts of Brain (6)
Top: Dorsal
Back: Posterior
Front: Anterior
Outwards: Lateral
Inwards: Medial
Bottom: Ventral
Directional Terminology Views of Brain (3)
1) Coronal is the frontal view
2) Horizontal is the top view
3) Sagittal is the side view (medial)
What is the CNS? What does it compose? (2)
Central Nervous System: Brain and Spinal Cord
What is the PNS? What does it compose of? (2)
Peripheral Nervous System: Somatic nervous system and Autonomic nervous system
What is the Somatic Nervous System of the (PNS) composed of? (2)
1) Efferent nerves (outgoing)
2) Afferent nerves (incoming)
(THESE ARE WHAT WE CONTROL)
What is an efferent nerve of the somatic nervous system in the PNS?
Motor nerves that connect CNS to skeletal muscles.
What is an afferent nerve of the somatic nervous system in the PNS?
Sensory nerves that carry info from sense organs to CNS?
What is the Autonomic Nervous System of the (PNS) composed of? (2)
REGULATES HOMEOSTASIS?
1) Sympathetic nervous system SNS
2) Parasympathetic nervous system PNS
WHAT WE DO NOT CONTROL
What is the Sympathetic nervous system of the autonomic nervous system in the PNS?
Arousing nerves (Fight or Flight)
What is the Parasympathetic nervous system of the autonomic nervous system in the PNS?
Calming nerves (Rest and Digest)
How the autonomic system affects the body?
Parasympathetic (REST AND DIGEST):
Constrict pupils, lungs, heart beat. Increase stomach activity and dilates blood vessels.
Sympathetic (FIGHT OR FLIGHT): Dilates pupils, lungs. Constricts stomach, blood vessels. Increase heart rate.
Major parts of brain? (3)
1) Cerebrum (big brain)
2) Cerebellum (little brain)
3) Brainstem
What is the cerebral cortex?
Brains outer layer of grey matter. Part of cerebrum and higher level functions.
Cerebral cortex texture? (2)
1) Gyrus (bump)
2) Sulcus (groove)
What is the brain divided in? (2)
1) Left hemisphere
2) Right hemisphere
What are the lobes of the brain? (4)
1) Frontal lobe (anterior part of brain)
2) Occipital lobe (posterior part of brain)
3) Parietal lobe (posterior dorsal part of brain)
4) temporal lobe (ventral lateral part of brain)
What is the frontal lobe known for? (2)
1) Motor control
2) Executive function
What is the occipital lobe known for? (1)
1) Vision
What is the parietal lobe known for? (2)
1) Touch sensation
2) Sense of self in space
What is the temporal lobe known for? (3)
1) Auditory sensation
2) Language perception
3) Gustatory functions
What is the corpus callosum?
It connects the two hemispheres (links them).
Where is the third ventricule?
Right under corpus callosum right above brain stem.
Where is the fourth ventricule?
Between brainstem and cerebellum.
What are the parts of them brainstem? (3)
1) Diencephalon
2) Midbrain
3) Hinbrain
What is the diencephalon (brainstem)? (2)
1) Upper part of the brain stem.
2) Contains thalamus and Hypothalamus.
What is the thalamus (diencephalon)? (2)
1) Inner chamber of diencephalon.
2) All senses (except smell) pass through thalamus to go to cortex
What is the hypothalamus (diencephalon)? (2)
1) Below thalamus
2) Controls homeostasis and hormone secretion from pituitary gland
What is the hindbrain (brainstem)? (3)
1) Pons
2) Medulla
3) Long part of brainstem
What is the pons (hindbrain)? (1)
Connects cerebellum to brainstem
What is the medulla (hindbrain)? (2)
1) Control breathing/heart rate
2) Connects the brain to spinal cord
What is midbrain (brainstem)? (2)
1) Part between diencephalon and midbrain
2) contains neurons that produce dopamine to other parts of the brain
What are the levels of the brain tissue? Which are meninges? (5)
1) Skin
2) Skull
3) Dura mater (meninge)
4) Arachnoid (meninge)
5) Pia matter (meninge)
What is the meninge?
Protective layer of the brain and spinal cord
What is the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)?
1) It fills the ventricules and circulates around brain and spinal cord.
2) Contains glucose, salts and mineral (very little protein)
3) Similar density to brain
What are the two types of brain cells?
1) Neurons
2) Glial cells
What is myelin sheath?
Fatty substance that covers axons. It insulates the axon to increase speed and efficiency of electrical signal conduction. Myelin gives white matter its color.
What is grey matter?
Areas of nervous system composed of cell bodies and blood vessels.
What is white matter?
Areas of nervous system rich in fat-sheathed neural axons.
What is a glial cell? (2)
1) Support and modulate neuron activites
2) Creates myelin sheath
Are all axons myelinated?
No.
What are the groups of axons?
1) Tract
2) Nerve
What is a tract? (3)
1) Grouping of axons in the CNS.
2) Connect nuclei to each other
3) White matter consists mostly of tracts
What is a nerve? (1)
1) A grouping of axons in PNS
What is the grouping of cell bodies?
Nucleus (nuclei): clusters of neural cell bodies (grey matter).
Neurons in the cortex are uniform or irregular?
Uniform
Neurons in the brainstem and subcorticals are uniform or irregular?
Irregular
What are the two subcortical systems?
1) Limbic system: emotions, memories, drug and psychological issues.
2) Basal Ganglia: mouvement, learning, memory, habits
What are the three major parts of the limbic system?
1) Cingulate cortex: Emotional processing and memory
2) Amygdala: Fear, aggression and emotionally charged memories
3) Hippocampus: Formation of long-term memories
What are the three parts of the basal ganglia?
1) Striatum: caudate nucleus and putamen
2) Globus pallidus
3) Substantia nigra (midbrain)
Who first suggested movement is electricity? And who elaborated it?
Luigi Galvani (1737)
Alessandro Volta (1745)
What is electricity?
Movement of electrically charged particles from one place to another
What happens if you de-equilibrate things?
They will re-equilibrate themselves
How do neuron maintain their electric charge?
They do so across their membrane
What charge do neurons have more of and what does that mean?
Neurons are negatively charged so they are polarized
What is the neurons electrical potential at rest?
-70mv= resting potential
What does the neuron continually do?
Return to resting potential (-70 mv)
What does the neuron go up to during an action potential in mv?
+30 mv
What is an action potential?
Short-lived, spreading, localized change in polarity
What is the threshold for an action potential?
-50 mv
How does an action potential happen?
When ion channels in the neurons membrane open up and allow inflow of positive ions.
What do you call any change in the resting potential?
depolarization
Do myelinated axons have faster conduction?
yes
How does information flow?
Dendrites>Cell Body>Axon>Axon Terminal
What are synapses?
Contact points between two neurons
What does the synapse do?
transfer chemicals from one neuron to another
What are synapses frequent targets of?
Exogenous chemical stimulation (drugs)
What is the receiving neuron called?
post-synaptic neuro
What is the neuron sending info called?
pre-synaptic neuron
What is the synapse in between neurons called?
Synaptic cleft
What is the synaptic transmission in 4 steps?
1) neurotransmitters are synthesized and stored in presynaptic axon terminal
2) Action potentials stimulate release of neurotransmitters
3) Neurotransmitters bind to receptors (specifically specialized proteins) on post-synaptic neuron
4) receptors coupled to ion channels that would open to a neurotransmitter
What does an influx in ions cause?
Post-synaptic potential PSP
What is an Excitatory Post-Synaptic Potential (EPSP)?
A positive charge in the membrane (depolarize)
What is an Inhibitory Post-Synaptic Potential (IPSP)?
A negative charge in the membrane (hyperpolarize)
Excitatory NTs?
1) Glutamate
INFLUX POSSITIVE IONS (CATIONS) (Na, Ca, K)
Inhibitory NTs?
1) GABA
2) Glycine
INFLUX NEGATIVE IONS (ANIONS) (CL)
Is one EPSP enough to cause an action potential?
No, many are needed in same space and time to move up to -50mv
Where does an action potential start?
Axon Hillock: if depolarized enough action potential starts
Major classes of neurotransmitters? (4)
1) Amino Acids: Glutamate, Glycine, GABA
2) Monoamines: Dopamine, norepinephrine, epinephrine, serotonin
3) Peptides: neuropeptides
4) Others, Adenosine…
What is a ligand?
Ligand is a molecule that bind and activate a receptors.
Example of ligands
NT’s and hormones are ligands.
What are Agonist ligands?
Ligands that open and bind to receptors
What are Antagonist ligands?
Ligands that bind and close receptors
Deactivating NT’s four ways?
1) Diffusion: diffuse away from synaptic cleft
2) Degradation: specialized enzymes break NTs down
3) Reuptake: reuptake transporters re-cycle NT’s to pre-synaptic terminal
4) Glial Cells: neighboring glial cells might take them
What are hormones?
Chemicals secreted by one cell group that ravel through bloodstream to act on targets
What typically releases hormones? What are the two types?
Glands.
1) Endocrine glands: release hormones in body
2) Exocrine glands : release fluids outside of body
What is the relationship between hormones and behavior like?
Reciprocal
What is a pulsatile secretion pattern?
A burst of hormone secretion (periods).
What sometimes controls hormones?
Circadian clocks
What happens when hormones interact?
they can change the effects
How is hormonal signaling similar to neural signaling? (3)
1) Produce and store chemicals (neurons and endocrines)
2) Both bind to receptors
3) Some chemicals can be used as both hormones and NT’s
How is hormonal signaling different to neural signaling? (4)
1) Neural = precise/Hormonal = throughout body
2) Neural = rapid/Hormonal = slow secretion
3) Neural = small distance/Hormonal = large distance
4) Neural can be voluntary/ Hormonal are involuntary
Major Classes of Hormones? (3)
1) Peptide/Protein
2) Monoamines
3) Steroids
How do hormones (except steroid) enter cell?
Hormones bind to receptor which trigger release of intracellular second messengers. Second messengers travel through cell (effects fast)
How do steroids enter cell?
All steroids made of cholesterol (easily pass through cell membrane). Receptors float around in cell and wait for steroid. When found, brings steroid to DNA and acts as transcription factor (change gene expression).
Effect of hormones on organs? (3)
1) Growth
2) Cell Activity and Metabolism
3) Hormone secretion from endocrine glands
What is the pituitary gland? And its parts?
The master gland of the body (secretes many hormones to the body)
1) Anterior pituitary (AP): connected to hypothalamus
2) Posterior pituitary (PP): connected to neurons to stimulate hormone secretion
What is HPA Axis?
Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis
What does the HPA do?
Stress neural system.
1) Hypothalamus: releases CRH
2) Pituitary: Acts on anterior pituitary to release ACTH
3) Adrenal: Acts on adrenal gland which releases glucocorticoids (cortisol)
What is CRH?
Corticotropic releasing hormone
What is ACTH?
Adreno-corticotropic releasing hormone
What is negative feedback?
Loop back is critical to homeostasis. Counteraction of an effect that occurs as a result of the effect itself
What is a stressor?
A stimuli that challenges homeostasis which triggers a response
What does stress response accomplish? (2)
1) Temporarily puts body into overdrive
2) Suspends bodily repair/construction/growth to conserve energy
Who is Hans Slye?
Father of stress
What are the three parts of the adaptation syndrome?
1) Alarm: Fight or Flight (SNS)
2) Resistance: Cope with prolonged stressors-cortisol and HPA axis
3) Exhaustion: physiological resources depleted so disease start to appear
What is the SAM axis?
Sympatho-adrenomedullary axis (fast pathway) (mediate first response: alarm)
What is the Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis for?
Slow pathway: mediates physiological adaptations involved in dealing with prolonged stress
Where is adrenal gland?
Above kidney
What are the tow glands in the adrenal gland?
1) Adrenal medulla: secretes epinephrine and norepinephrine
2) Adrenal Cortex: Secretes cortisol
How does the SAM Axis work? 2 steps
1) Hypothalamus neural circuits to the spinal cord where they synapse with neurons of sympathetic nervous system
2) SNS neurons project to the adrenal medulla and it releases epinephrine and norepinephrine into circulation
Effects of catecholamines (epinephrine/norepinephrine)
-Have rapid effects such as increased heart rate/ bronchodilation/blood pressure
-Epinephrine used for allergies (Epi-Pen)
Three steps of the HPA axis?
1) Hypothalamus releases CRH into AP
2) CRH stimulates AP to release ACTH
3) ACTH stimulates release of cortisol from adrenal cortex
Properties cortisol?
1) steroid hormone (adrenal cortex)
2) ligand for receptor: Mineralocorticoid (MR) and Glucocorticoid (GR)
3) Both MR and GR are transcription factor receptors (increase stress responsive gene expression)
Effects of cortisol?
1) metabolic: reduce bone/tissue formation, increase breakdown lean mass…
2) used as anti-inflammatory
Negative effects stress on cognition?
Suppresses higher level thinking of reasoning and flexible thinking
Positive effects of stress on cognition?
Improves performance in simpler well rehearsed tasks
What is the prefrontal cortex (PFC)
PFC negative effect stress.
PFC involved in concentration, planning, insight, judgment…
What does PFC regulate? How does stress effects this?
Impulses. Stress weakens this.
PFC under normal conditions?
Inhibitory projections travel top down through brain (improved cognition).
PFC under stress?
Epinephrine and Norepinephrine from brainstem shut down inhibitory projections.
What happens to hippocampus after prolonged exposure to stress?
Cortisol (stress) damages the hippocampus
What is good stress called?
Eustress
What is the relationship between too little/too much stress called?
Yerkes-Dodson Law
