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Biological Anthropology > Midterm 1 > Flashcards

Midterm 1 Flashcards

1
Q

Anthropology

A

study of humans

cultural, archaeology, linguistic, biological

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2
Q

biological anthropology

A

what makes us humans?

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3
Q

Great Ape Phylogeny

A

phylogeny of apes - shows last common ancestor is 5 million years ago

phylogeny: evolutionary tree - closer they are, closer related

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4
Q

comparative approach

A

compare humans to other species

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5
Q

Why do humans smile (SBT)?

A

in despotic: SBT when there is a threat
in egalitarian: SBT in many contexts
power emancipation hypothesis

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6
Q

power emancipation hypothesis

A

human smiling indicated egalitarian hierarchy in evolution

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7
Q

our approach

A

observe, question, hypothesize, predict, test

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8
Q

convergent evolution

A

same trait evolves seperately

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9
Q

properties of science

A

data driven, things aren’t proven, constantly updating/self correcting, not authoritative

facts = laws, big ideas = theories

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10
Q

evolution

A

change over time

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10
Q

homology

A

similar structure due to common descent

anatomical evidence for evolution

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11
Q

Genetic Evidence for Evolution

A

DNA/RNA is universal

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11
Q

vestigal organs

A

structures from past ancestor that is unused

ex: goosbumps: reaction to being aroused
ex: whale skeletons: hip bones

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12
Q

Fossil Evidence for Evolution

A

find traces/fossils of species that used to exist; ancestors of species w/ different features suggests change
fossils of humans: sahelanthropus tehadensis, transitional fossils

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12
Q

mistakes and imperfections

A

show built on pre-existing structure
jury rigged design

ex: baggage of bipedalism, appendix, impacted moalrs

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12
Q

jury rigged design

A

animals aren’t machines - work w/ what’s available

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13
Q

Evolution is Predictive

A

origin of tetrapods - able to find when it should have lived (375 mil) - found tiktaalik

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14
Q

Carl Linnaeus

A

systema nautrae (1735) - organized life into categories

insisted humans are primates & shared simmilarities; taxonmic system

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15
Q

natural theology

A

18th century belief of human origin; special creation from God & perfectly adapted

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16
Q

18th century biology

A

branch of theology
had to swear on 39 articles and study religion

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17
Q

William Paley

A

life is well adapted, so God must be the designer

more detailed science - greater glory to creator (humans = best)

how happened

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18
Q

Lamark

A

evolution via the inhertiance of acquired characteristics

big mistake is acquired!

what happened

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19
Q

Charles Lyell

A

uniformitarianism: idea that world changes slowly and constantly

what happened

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20
Q

18th century evidence of evolution

A

fossils existed

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21
Q

Charles Darwin

A

wealthy; went on a voyage (Beagle) and developed the theory of evolution

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22
Q

Alfred Russel Wallace

A

malaria inspired letter with same idea of the theory of evolution

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23
Q

Natural Selection

A

process by which traits become more or less common in a population

mechanism for evolution

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24
Q

4 postulates of natural selection

A

competition, variation, reproduction, inheritance

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25
Q

competition

A

resources are limited, not everyone survives to reproduce + overreproduction is a threat

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26
Q

variation

A

individuals are different - affects ability to compete & survive

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27
Q

reproduction & inheritance

A

traits are passed from parent to offspring

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28
Q

galapogos finches example

A

Peter + Rosemary Grant:
study finches - beak shape correlate to fallback food
in a drought, change in beak style to process harder seeds

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29
Q

adaptive variation

A

change in response to habitat

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30
Q

cross-foster

A

switch offspring to determine that it is genetic and not learned

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31
Q

fitness

A

ability of organism to survive & transmit gene

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32
Q

adaptation

A

feature shaped by natural selection (survival + reproduction)

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33
Q

homology

A

traits shared by a common ancestor

go back to common link

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34
Q

homoplasy

A

traits shared due to convergent evolution

many species can share w/o common ancestor that had trait

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35
Q

Non-Adaptive Traits

A

mutations & incidental by-products

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36
Q

mutations

A

small effect @ population level (most rare and don’t work)
more effect when selection relaxed

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37
Q

Incidental by-product

A

have because of adaptation, but isn’t an adaptation
example: water birds have penises due to underwater fertilization
females have clitoris as a by-product (same developmental tissue)

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38
Q

only mechanism that produces adaptation

A

natural selection

does not always lead to evolution

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39
Q

behavioral ecology

A

apply evolutionary theory to behavior

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40
Q

What Darwin couldn’t explain

A

why are there showy traits?
why are traits not blended away?
where did new variation come from?
why do we help eachother?

he did not know genetics

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41
Q

Gregor Mendel (mid to late 1800s)

A

monk who experimented in garden
Garden Pea experiment
father of modern genetics

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42
Q

Garden Pea experiment

A

characteristics had discreet physical forms
seeds: smooth/wrinked, yellow/green
when crossed found that in the first generation (f1), all yellow and round; in the second (f2), mixed
lead to the idea of genes

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43
Q

Dihybrid crosses

A

cross looking @ two traits

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44
Q

principle of segregation

A

inheritance of traits determined by genes passed on - one from mother one from father

genes don’t necessarily show

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45
Q

principle of independent assortment

A

genes for different traits assort independently

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46
Q

Mendellian traits in humans

A

dimples, freckles, earwax

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47
Q

Cell Theory (1665-1855)

A

all organisms are made of cells, the most baseic unit of life
all cells are produced from other cells

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48
Q

Rediscovering Mendel (1900)

A

people did his experiments again and then realized he already existed

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49
Q

Chromosomes

A

small linear body in nucleus
replicated during cell division & creation of gametes

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50
Q

Chromosome Inheritance Theory (1902)

A

sea urchins: sperm + egg have 1/2 of chromosoms of a somatic cell

wrong number of chromosomes leads to improper development

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51
Q

sperm + eggs experiment

A

when frogs had sex in “taffeta pants” - no tadpoles
confirm that sperm was used in sexual reproduction

52
Q

ploidy

A

number of chromosmes in a cell (do they have pairs)

53
Q

diploid, haploid, triploid

A

2, 1 (gametes), 3 - respectively

53
Q

Non Mendellian

A

linkage, pleiotropy, incomplete dom, co-dom, sex linked, trisomy

54
Q

somatic cells

A

all cells other than gametes

55
Q

mitosis

A

diploid parent cell
chromosomes replicated
divide into diploid identical daughter cells

mitosis

56
Q

meiosis

A

diploid parent cell
replication (involving crossing over)
divide into haploid gametes

57
Q

Principle of Segregation (genetics)

A

1 copy of chromosome from each parent

58
Q

Individual Assortment (genetics)

A

different chromosomes have different genes - independent (esp. bc cross over)

59
Q

allele

A

gene variants

60
Q

homozygous

A

AA or aa
the alleles are the smae

61
Q

heterozygous

A

Aa
the alleles are different

why not blended???

62
Q

Genotype

A

combination of alleles in individual

63
Q

Phenotype

A

observable characteristics (based on dominant and recessive)

64
Q

What happens when you breed two heterozygous

A

Genotype ratio: 1:2:1
Phenotype ratio: 3:1

65
Q

Crossing over/Recombination

A

swap info on chromosomes during replication so the two gametes are recombinant types

66
Q

Linkage

A

some traits on chromosomes ARE linked - greater the closer they are together

Non-Mendellian Inheritance

67
Q

Pleiotropy

A

single gene affects multiple traits

non-mendellian inheritance

68
Q

Incomplete Dominance

A

two traits “combine”
ex: straight hair + curly hair = wavy hair

non-mendellian inheritance

69
Q
A
70
Q

Co-Dominance

A

traits are both dominant and both appear
ex: black and white feathers
ex: AB blood type

non-mendellian inheritance

71
Q

Sex-Linked

A

Y-chromosome is small - cannot trump recessive trait on the X-chromosome
ex: colorblindness: allele on X
in XY, Y cannot overpower, but in XX, other X overpowers (carrier)
therefore, more likely to be a trait in people with XY chromosomes

non-mendellian inheritance

72
Q

Trisomy

A

chromosomes don’t split in meiosis
ex: extra chromosome in 21 - down sydrome

non-mendellian inheritance

73
Q

Environmental Implications on Traits

A

environment can change traits
ex: hydrangea flowers of same genotype have different colors based on soil

non-mendellian inheritance

74
Q
A
75
Q

Polygenic

A

multiple genes code for trait (ex: skin color)

non-mendellian inheritance

76
Q

genome

A

all of the genetic material in a cell, including the DNA.

77
Q

double helix

A

structure of DNA
huge sections are non-coding
allows for replication and inheritance
made of base-pairs: Adenine - Thymine, Cytosine - Guanine

78
Q

Who discovered DNA?

A

Watson, Crick, and Franklin

79
Q

DNA replication

A

“unzips” - now has a template due to pairs, and can copy

80
Q

Importance of Proteins

A

structural: muscle, collagen, keratin
enzymes: affect & allow chemical reactions in the body
regulatory proteins

81
Q

structure of proteins

A

amino acids into peptides
20 amino acids that go into differnt sequences depending on the code

82
Q

how does DNA code?

A

DNA is transcipted into RNA which is translated into a protein
the bases combine into 3 letter codons, each of which code for amino acids
DNA transcribed into mRNA (which has U instead of T), which attaches to the ribosome
tRNA brings the amino acids - makes a protein

83
Q

Why are codons repetitive?

A

reduces the likelihood of a mutation changing something

84
Q

non-synonomous mutation

A

something changes

85
Q

synonymous mutation

A

nothing changes

86
Q

gene regulation

A

some DNA is regulatory
ex:
repressor regions (prevent)
activator regions (turn on)
enhancers (increase rate)

87
Q

Explain Lactase persistence

A

lactase decreases after waining to conserve energy at a cellular level - sometimes persists
neolithic revolution (12000-6000 ya) - farm + conserve dairy
biocultural coevolution theory
convergent evolution in Europe and Asia

88
Q

pastoralism

A

cultural practice of milking livestock

89
Q

biocultural coevolution theory

A

pastoralism coevolved with lactase persistence
both changes reinforced eachother

90
Q

What is the mutation for Lactase persistence?

A

SNP - change in regulation of lactase

91
Q

biometrics

A

getting data on human characteristics

racist undertones/history

92
Q

continuous variation

A

work of many genes - almost impossible for single gene to control
in many cases, will have a bell curve - show mendellian for each individual gene

93
Q

Population Genetics

A

change in population over time
natural sellection acts on phenotype but changes frequencies of alleles in the population

94
Q

Evolution causes

A

natural selection, mutation, migration, genetic drift

95
Q

Population

A

group of individuals of same species that can interbreed with eachother (big locations or small)

96
Q

Gene Pool

A

all genes and alleles in a population
look for changes of frequencies in alleles in gene pool - indicator of evolution

96
Q

Genotype Frequency

A

number with a particular genotype/number of individuals in a population

96
Q

Allele Frequency

A

copy of alleles/total number of alleles for the gene

97
Q

Hardy-Weinberg Principle

A

allele proportions constant if no evolution
p = frequency of A
q = frequency of a
p+q = 1
q = frequency of (aa) + 0.5(frequency A)
q^2 +2pq + p^2 = 1
if alleles stay consistent, genotype will reach equilibrium

98
Q

When does the Hardy-Weinberg Principle hold?

A
  • large population size
  • random mating
  • no mutation
  • no alleles transferring in or out
  • no selection
99
Q

Agents of Evolutionary Change

A

natural selection, mutation, gene flow, non-random mating, genetic drift

100
Q

direct fitness

A

number of genomes passed directly to next generation

101
Q

indirect fitness

A

number of genomes passed via relatives

102
Q

inclusive fitness

A

number of direct + number of indirect

natural selection favors

103
Q

inheritance of acquired characteristics

A

epigenetics
ex: rat licking
methylation stops genes from being transcribed
when not licked, methylated, and don’t lick
when licked, non methylated, and lick
not tied to genes

104
Q

how is variation maintained?

A

mutations and hidden variation

105
Q

microevolution

A

allele frequency changes within population

106
Q

macroevolution

A

origin of new taxonomic groups above level of species

107
Q

Peppered Moth

A

example of microevolution: dark color blended in with soot covered trees in industrial revolution

108
Q

how to connect macro + micro evolution

A

microevolutions put togeter make macro

109
Q

species

A

darwin: rhetorical
clustered by genotypic and phenotypic traits
(sometimes can only tell through chromosomal analysis)

110
Q

Biological Species Concept (BSC)

A

species: can breed and reproductively isolated

111
Q

Barriers to reproduction

A
  • ecological (space)
  • temporal (time)
  • behavioral (preference)
  • mechanical (physically impossible)
  • gametic incompatibility
112
Q

Behavioral Barrier

A

green lacewings: song differences

113
Q

Mechanical Barrier

A

Drosophila: genital arches differ
Snail shells swirl in same direction

114
Q

Post Zygotic Barriers to Reproduction

A
  • instability (miscarriage)
  • hybrid inviability (die before reproduce)
  • hybrid stability (offspring cannot reproduce)
  • hybrid breakdown (over few generations, die off)
115
Q

Problems with BSC

A

doesn’t apply to fossils, cannot apply to asexual species

116
Q

Ecological Species Concept

A

reproductive isolation is not necessary
natural selection keeps species distant from onee another (hybrids can’t compete as welll)

117
Q

Humans and the BSC

A
  • 7 mil YA: humans and chimps split; 500000 YA: Neanderthals split; 70000 YA: emigrate out of Africa and encounter Neaderthals
  • interbreed (modern 2%)
  • selection acted against hybrids
118
Q

Speciation

A

when 2 populations genetically diverge (on node of phylogenic tree)
allopatric and parapatric and sympatic

119
Q

Allopatric Speciation

A

geographical isolation + natural selection
character displacement pushes traits to both ends

120
Q

Parapatric Speciation

A

selection + partial geographic isolation
hybrid zones, but natural selection keeps seperate

121
Q

Sympatic Speciation

A

populations in same place; instantaneous speciation

122
Q

taxonomy

A

groupings of organisms based on shared characteristics

123
Q

phylogeny

A

evolutionary relations between species

124
Q

phylogenic tree

A

branches that show species based on shared morphology
if go to top, share trait
if don’t go to the top, extinct
distance: take all the lines and lay flat

125
Q

Why Reconstruct Phylogeny

A

explains why certain adaptations evolved

126
Q

ancestral trait

A

present in common ancestor

127
Q

derived trait

A

arose since common ancestor

128
Q

molecular clock

A

average rate at which species genome accumulates mutations

Biological Anthropology (3 decks)

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