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PoO > Michaelmas > Flashcards

Michaelmas Flashcards

1
Q

Define osmolarity

A

Number of osmoles of solute per litre of solution

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2
Q

Define osmolality

A

Number of osmoles of solute per kg of solution

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3
Q

Define osmole

A

Moles of osmotically active particles, effect osmosis

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4
Q

Define osmotic pressure

A

Pressure required to stop movement of pure water into a solution

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5
Q

Define water potential

A

Tendency for water to move from one are to another

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6
Q

How does osmotic pressure and potential relate

A

High osmotic pressure means low water potential

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7
Q

Define tonicity

A

Tendency to draw water in

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8
Q

What is the pressure and potential of a hypotonic solution?

A

High water potential, low osmotic pressure

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9
Q

Define physiology

A

branch of science that deals with function of living organisms and their systems and organs. First used by Jean Fernel

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10
Q

What does autotrophic mean?

A

Can obtain carbon from inorganic compounds. Producing its own energy. E.g plants (via photosynthesis)

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11
Q

Define homeostasis

A

maintenance of constant internal conditions and counter any deviation from the normal

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12
Q

What variables are homeostatically regulated?

A

1) Temp
2)Osmotic pressure
3) Arterial BP
4) ECF volume
5) blood pH
6) Ion/ glucose concentrations

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13
Q

What is a portal vein?

A

A vein that drains directly from one organ to another

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14
Q

How is the pituitary gland controlled?

A

By hypothalamus. Hypothalamus releases hormones into anterior to control release of other hormones.
To posterior sends signals, as it is in direct contact

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15
Q

What inhibits the sodium pump

A

Ouabain

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16
Q

What is the Hodgkin cycle?

A

Cycle of the 3 stages of Na+ channel states, open, closed & inactive

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17
Q

Define atrophy

A

The breakdown of muscle

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18
Q

Define hypertrophy

A

The building of muscle

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19
Q

What is myoglobin?

A

Protein that provides O2, found in striated muscles (myo)

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20
Q

What is isotonic contraction?

A

Tension remains the same, so length of muscle changes

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21
Q

What is isometric contraction?

A

When tension changes, however length of muscle doesn’t

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22
Q

What are the 3 layers in blood vessels? From inside out

A

Tunica intima
Tunica Media
Tunica Adventitia

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23
Q

What are the vessels that provide blood to vessel walls?

A

Vaso vasorum

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24
Q

What are sphincters?

A

Circular muscles that open and close in passages to regulate movement of fluids. E.g. blood into dormant capillaries

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25
Q

What are local metabolites?

A

By-products of metabolism that cause vasodilation.
Aid the positive feedback loop

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26
Q

What are the names of the positive feedback loop in vessels associated with local metabolites?

A

Functional hyperaemia
Metabolic hyperaemia
Metabolic autoregulation

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27
Q

What does CKK do

A

Satiety signal released from stretching of the stomach. Signals fullness and stops eating.

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28
Q

What part of the brain controls feeding + Metabolism?

A

Hypothalamus, specifically the Arcuate nucleus

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29
Q

What kind of energy costs are involve in the acquisition of nutrients?

A

1) Foraging/ hunting
2) Enzyme production
3) Enzyme secretion
4) Absorption of nutrients

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30
Q

What is chyme?

A

Liquid slurry made in stomach released into the small intestine

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31
Q

What is the duodenum?

A

First part of the small intestine, mixes chyme, bile and pancreatic juices. It’s connected to the stomach.

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32
Q

What and where are proteolytic enzymes released?

A

Enzymes that break down proteins,
many released in the stomach

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33
Q

What are the 4 compartments of a cow’s stomach called?

A

Rumen, Reticulum, Omasum, Abomasum

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34
Q

Through which transporter are galactose and glucose moved through, into a cell?

A

SGLT1

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35
Q

Through which transporter is fructose moved through, into a cell?

A

GLUT5

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36
Q

Through which transporter are galactose, glucose and fructose moved through out of the cell?

A

GLUT2

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37
Q

How to calculate the respiratory quotient/ratio?

A

CO2 eliminated/ O2 consumed

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38
Q

Name 4 different mechanisms of carrying out gas exchange

A

1) Diffusion- unicellular
2) Alveoli- humans
3) Gills- fish
4) Tracheal system &spiracles- insects

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39
Q

What is Darcy’s law?

A

rate of flow= change in pressure/ resistance

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40
Q

What are the 2 zones in the respiratory system?

A

Conducting and respiratory

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41
Q

What is the function of the conducting zone?

A

1) warm air
2) Filter out particulates
3) Phonation
4) Immune response

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42
Q

What are the 3 layers that make up the diffusion distance in humans?

A

1) alveolar epithelial
2) basement membrane
3) Capillary endothelium

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43
Q

Why is haemoglobin important?

A

Allows more O2 to be carried in blood
Acts as O2 sink
Maintaining diffusion gradient

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44
Q

What is the counter current flow?

A

When water and blood flow go in opposite directions, to maintain a diffusion gradient

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45
Q

Name 5 examples of ventilation

A

1) Cytoplasmic streaming
2) Insects- controlling spiracles
3) Gills- muscular contraction
4) Ram ventilation- swimming with mouth open
5) Breathing

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46
Q

What is the Functional residual capacity?

A

vol of air left after tidal exhalation ( ER+ RV)

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47
Q

What is inspiratory capacity?

A

Max volume breathed in from FRC, (TV+IR)

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48
Q

How do you calculate total ventilation rate?

A

Tidal Volume x Respiratory rate

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49
Q

What is dead space?

A

Part of the respiratory system where gas exchange doesn’t occur

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50
Q

What is anatomic dead space?

A

The conducting airways, anatomically unable to carry out gas exchange

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51
Q

What is alveolar dead space?

A

Part of the alveoli which aren’t perfused enough for gas exchange to occur

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52
Q

What is the A-a gradient?

A

gradient between theoretical and actual oxygen conc

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53
Q

What are nociceptors?

A

Receptors that detect signals from damaged tissues

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54
Q

Where are chemoreceptors located?

A

Peripheral and CNS, carotid body, aortic arch

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55
Q

What is hypercapnia?

A

High [CO2], caused by hypoventilation

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56
Q

What is an effective osmole?

A

can exert pressure and can’t move through membrane

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57
Q

What is an ineffective osmole?

A

Doesn’t exert pressure as it can move through the membrane

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58
Q

What is tonicity?

A

Tendency to bring water into itself

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59
Q

What is colloid osmotic pressure?

A

Pressure exerted by proteins and colloids in the solution

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60
Q

What is the difference in osmoregulation between marine invertebrates and vertebrates?

A

Invertebrates - bodily fluids similar to seawater
Vertebrates- bodily fluids very different to seawater

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61
Q

Name some examples of osmoregulatory organs

A

Skin
Kidney
Salt glands
Gills

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62
Q

How do marine mammals regulate water?

A

Use metabolic water
Their bodily fluid is hyposmotic to seawater so can’t drink it

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63
Q

What is the structure of the urinary system?

A

Kidney
Ureter
Bladder
Urethra

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64
Q

What’s the structure of the kidney like from outside to in?

A

Capsule, Cortex, Medulla (separated by renal columns)

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65
Q

What consists the renal tubules?

A

Nephron and collecting duct

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66
Q

What are the two types of nephrons and how are they different?

A

Cortical- more shallow
Juxtamedullary- loop of Henle found in inner medulla

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67
Q

Describe the blood supply into Bowman’s Capsule.

A

Afferent arteriole in efferent arteriole out

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68
Q

What type of blood flow is present in kidneys?

A

Counter current

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69
Q

What is special about the blood supply to the cortex and the medulla in the kidney?

A

Independent of each other, so conc/dilute urine can be made

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70
Q

What are the 4 renal mechanisms?

A

Filtration
Tubular re-absorption
Tubular secretion
Urinary excretion

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71
Q

What are the particle sizes for ultrafiltration

A

Greater than 70,000 Da not filtered out
Less than 7,000 filtered out

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72
Q

What are the properties of the particles which regulate filtration?

A

Charge
Size

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73
Q

What are the 3 layers in the filtration barrier

A

Fenestrated capillary
Basement membrane
Podocyte

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74
Q

Why are proteins less likely to be filtered out?

A

Some are large
Exist as anions and the barrier has a fixed negative charge so repel proteins and don’t allow them to be filtered out

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75
Q

How is the NET filtration pressure calculated?

A

hydrostatic + colloid pressure

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76
Q

Which pressure value is usually negligible in the kidney system?

A

Colloid pressure in Bowman’s capsule, as not may colloids get through filtration

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77
Q

What does the glomerular filtration rate depend on?

A

Pressure
Permeability
Surface area

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78
Q

What is the avg filtration rate in humans?

A

125ml/min

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79
Q

What is the point of counter current multiplication?

A

Increase conc of solutes in medullary interstitial fluid

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80
Q

How much water and solute is absorbed in the proximal tubule?

A

65% of each

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81
Q

How much water and solute is absorbed in the loop of Henle?

A

10% water
25% of solute
causing uncoupling of the two

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82
Q

What is absorbed in the Distal convoluted tube and collecting duct?

A

More NaCl, little water

83
Q

How is the cortical collecting duct permeability controlled?

A

ADH, controls water permeability

84
Q

How is the medullary collecting duct permeability controlled?

A

ADH, controls urea permeability

85
Q

How does urea move around, where does it diffuse in and out?

A

Out of inner medullary collecting duct
In thin descending limb

86
Q

What is overall reabsorbed in the PCT and what compounds facilitate that movement?

A

Reabsorbed- Na+, Cl-, water
Helpers-
oxalic acid/oxalate (antiport)
amino acids (symport)
glucose (symport)

87
Q

What are the transporters found in the thick ascending limb and where are they located?

A

Lumenal- NKCC2, K+ channel
Medullary Interstitium side-Na/K ATPase, K and Cl channels, K/Cl symport channel

88
Q

What is the role of urea?

A

concentrating urine, to reduce water loss
By drawing water of thin descending limb

89
Q

Why does urea not act as an effective osmole in the collecting duct?

A

The inner medullary collecting duct is highly permeable to it, so cannot exert an osmotic pressure

90
Q

What does low [ADH] mean for urea?

A

More urea lost

91
Q

How do cells of the medulla keep up with changes in volume?

A

Creating compatible solutes : sorbitol and betaine

92
Q

What is the vasa recta?

A

Vessels that remove water and solute from medulla, without disrupting the osmotic gradient

93
Q

How does the vasa recta remove water and solute without disrupting the gradient?

A

Counter current flow down and up the hairpin
Down, water out, solute in
Up water in, solute out
However equilibration is not complete, so removes some water and solute

94
Q

What is the structure and half life of ADH?

A

Cyclic, with disulphide bridge, nonapeptide
Short half life (6-10min)

95
Q

What does ADH do?

A

Osmoregulation
Vasoconstriction (known as vasopressin)

96
Q

How is secretion of ADH control/ inhibited?

A

Reflexes in gut and liver
Osmoreceptors in hypothalamus
Arterial baroreceptors
Volume receptors in vessels

97
Q

What are the 2 types of ADH receptors and where are they located?

A

V1= Vasoconstriction, in smooth vessels, low affinity to ADH
V2= osmoregulation, in kidney, high affinity to ADH

98
Q

Where is ADH synthesised?

A

Magnocellular neurones in SON and PVN in hypothalamus

99
Q

Where is ADH stored, ready for release?

A

Posterior pituitary gland, at the end of neurons in vesicles

100
Q

How does ADH secretion occur?

A

Action potential travels down neuron
causes calcium-dependent exocytosis

101
Q

How does ADH work on V2 receptors? And where are they located?

A

Binds to V2 (Gs-PCR)
activates adenylyl cyclase
cAMP made, activates PKA
PKA phosphorylates serine res 256 on AQP2
Vesicle fuse, AQP2 on membrane
Located in kidney

102
Q

What is the water absorption rate limiting step?

A

Water absorption on luminal membrane

103
Q

What is the mechanism of UREA permeability controlled by ADH?

A

Phosphorylation of urea transporter (UT)
Activates UT-A2 on thin descending limb
Promotes urea recycling

104
Q

How do marine invertebrates osmoregulate?

A

They don’t, isosmotic and same ionic composition as seawater
Examples: starfish, sea urchins

105
Q

What is the hagfish a rare example of?

A

Marine vertebrate that is isosmotic with sea water, however ionic composition is different

106
Q

How do marine elasmobranchs osmoregulate?

A

Salt secreting rectal gland
BF- isosmotic
Urine isosmotic to seawater
example: sharks

107
Q

What transporters are present in salt glands of elasmobranchs?

A

NKCC1
Na/K ATPase
Cl- and K+ channels

108
Q

What is the role of urea and TMAO in elasmobranchs?

A

Organic electrolytes that make up the difference required (gradient and charge?)
TMAO stops urea from denaturing proteins

109
Q

How do marine teleost fish osmoregulate?

A

Gill
BF- hyposmotic
water lost across gills, replaces by drinking sea water
also have chloride cells secreting Cl-

110
Q

Which type of marine animals drink seawater?

A

Marine teleost fish
marine birds
marine reptiles (turtles)

111
Q

How do marine birds and reptiles osmoregulate?

A

Nasal salt gland
BF- hyposmotic
Drink seawater
hypertonic salt gland secretion

112
Q

How do marine mammals osmoregulate?

A

Kindey
BF- hyposmotic
Survive off water from oxidative metabolism

113
Q

How do freshwater teleost fish osmoregulate?

A

Gills also
BF- hyperosmotic
Don’t drink water, water gain across gills
Urine hyposmotic
Have pavement and chloride cells

114
Q

What is the role of pavement cells?

A

Active uptake from Na+ from freshwater

115
Q

How does uptake of Na+ occur in pavement cells?

A

Na/ K ATPase creates conc gradient, drawing in Na+ from freshwater
Relative positive charge created by H+ ATPase to help movement

116
Q

What happens when a migratory fish travels from freshwater to seawater?

A

Down regulation of H+ ATPase
Increase in no and activity of chloride cells
Increase in cortisol and growth hormone

117
Q

What happens when a migratory fish travels from seawater to freshwater?

A

Up regulation of H+ ATPase
Decrease in no and activity of chloride cells
Increase in prolactin

118
Q

How do amphibia osmoregulate?

A

Skin
BF- hyperosmotic
Gain water across skin
Lose salts across skin

119
Q

How do birds osmoregulate?

A

Kidney, Cloaca
Kidney only able to produce slightly hyperosmotic to blood

120
Q

How are mammalian and bird kidneys different to reptiles etc?

A

Contain a loop of Henle

121
Q

How is the bird kidney different to a humans?

A

Not all nephrons in birds contain a loop of Henle
Overall a mix of mammalian -like and reptillian- like

122
Q

How do insects osmoregulate?

A

Gut
Malpighian tubes

123
Q

What are the transporters in malpighian tubes?

A

Na/K ATPase to remove K+ from haemocoel
H+ ATPase pumping H+ into lumen
NKCC2- removing Na, K 2Cl- from haemocoel

124
Q

What are rectal pad cells?

A

Cells that reabsorb water by recycling ions in the rectal lumen

125
Q

How do rectal pad cells help create dry excretion?

A

Increase in ion conc
Cause water to move through septate junction
Move down, ions recycled

126
Q

How do mealworms create a concentrated excretion?

A

Counter current flow of fluid in malpighian tubule and rectal tubule, allowing further reabsorption

127
Q

How is nitrogenous waste produced?

A

Amino acid catabolism

128
Q

What are ammnotelic organism?

A

Organisms that secrete nitrogenous waste as ammonia (NH3), via gills as this requires lots of water

129
Q

How is nitrogenous waster secreted in mammals and birds?

A

As urea, which also requires some water

130
Q

What is the route for blood moving into the kidneys?

A

Renal artery->
Interlobar arteries->
Arcuate arteries->
Cortical radial arteries->
Afferent arterioles

131
Q

What is the route for blood moving out of the kidneys?

A

Peritubular capillaries->
Cortical radial veins->
Arcuate veins->
Renal veins

132
Q

How is the Nernst equation different to the Goldman- Hodgkin- Katz (GHK) equation?

A

Both calculate electrochemical potentials
GHK involves multiple ions
Nernst- to find equilibrium potential
GHK- find membrane potential

133
Q

What is the absolute refractory period?

A

No matter how large the stimulus is, an action potential cannot be created

134
Q

What is the relative refractory period?

A

Only a very large stimulus will cause the creation of an action potential

135
Q

What kind of transmission is present for electrical synapses?

A

Gap junctions- Cells remain connected
Present in cardiac muscles

136
Q

What kind of transmission is present for chemical synapses?

A

Vesicular transport- ‘normal’ synapse

137
Q

What is the difference between ionotropic and metabotropic transmission?

A

Ionotropic- direct activation of channels by ions
Metabotropic- activation of channels, by secondary messengers e.g. neurotransmitters

138
Q

What is temporal summation?

A

When there is a repeated stimulus over tiem

139
Q

What is spatial summation?

A

When there are many stimulations at once, from different neurones

140
Q

What route does the afferent and efferent neurone take? And what are their roles?

A

Afferent- to CNS - sensory
Efferent- from CNS - effect

141
Q

What is the structure of the preganglionic neurone?

A

Myelinated
From CNS to ganglion

142
Q

What is the structure of the post ganglionic neurone?

A

Unmyelinated
From ganglion to effector (muscle/ neurone)

143
Q

What type of GPCRs are the 5 adrenergic receptors?

A

Alpha 1 = Gq
Apha 2 = Gi
Beta 1- 3 = Gs

144
Q

Where are the 5 adrenergic receptors located?

A

Alpha 1- blood vessels
Alpha 2- presynaptic nerve terminals
Beta 1- Heart
Beta 2 - Lungs, smooth muscle
Beta 3- Adipose tissue

145
Q

Which adrenergic receptors are stimulated by adrenaline and which by noradrenaline?

A

Adrenaline - 2 (alpha and beta)
Noradrenaline - 1 (alpha and beta)

146
Q

What are the 6 functions of the respiratory system?

A

Gas exchange
Immune defense
Phonation
Acid base balance
Metabolism
Thermoregulation

147
Q

What is nebulin?

A

Large protein that spans the length of the actin filament
Role is to set fibre length

148
Q

What is titin?

A

Large protein
Functions as a spring
Gives muscles elastic properties

149
Q

What makes up a motor unit?

A

Neurone
Muscle Cell

150
Q

How can increased force be achieved in muscles?

A

Recruitment of more motor units
Asynchronous activation- some switched on and off

151
Q

What are 2 examples of specialiased muscles?

A

1) Superfast twitch- generate high frequencies, high density SR, superfast myosin and SERCA pump
2) Insect Asynchronous muscle- Stretch of muscles lead to full force from muscle and creation of AP, stretching causes tropomyosin to move and expose receptors

152
Q

What is atrophy?

A

Breakdown of muscle

153
Q

What is hypertrophy?

A

Building of muscle

154
Q

What are the differences between red and white muscle?

A

Red- more blood to it, fatigue resistant, aerobic respiration, lots of mitochondria
White- prone to fatigue, anaerobic respiration, more glycolytic enzymes

155
Q

What is the difference between fast twitch and slow twitch muscle fibres?

A

Slow= Type I, postural muscles, lots of mitochondria, low Force/Area
Fast= Type II, flight muscles, high Force/area, Low fatigue resistance

156
Q

What is the equation for work?

A

Force x Distance

157
Q

What are the 3 sections in an ECG?

A

P wave- Atrial depolorisation
QRS wave- ventricular depolarisation
T wave- ventricular repolarisation

158
Q

What is a phonocardiogram?

A

Records heart sounds are murmurs
‘lub’ AV valves close
‘dub’ SL valves close

159
Q

What is the pathways of conduction in the heart, starting from the SAN?

A

SAN
AVN
Bundle of His
Purkinje fibres

160
Q

What are muscarinic receptors?

A

GPCRs
Respond to acetylcholine
Located in the heart (SAN), vessels
M2 in heart- parasympathetic, decreases HR

161
Q

What is Hypotension?

A

Low blood pressure

162
Q

What is Hypertension?

A

High blood pressure

163
Q

How is a sphygmomenometer used to measure blood pressure?

A

Listening for sounds of turbulent blood flow
Increase until quiet
Decrease until sound appears (Systolic)
Decrease until sound disappears (Diastolic)

164
Q

What does systolic and diastolic mean?

A

Systolic- pressure when heart beats
Diastolic- Pressure when heart relaxes

165
Q

Describe the cardiovascular response to exercise

A

1) Increase in cardiac output, HR and stroke volume
2) Increase in local perfusion (SA incr), recruit dormant capillaries
3) Local metabolites- Vasodilation, more O2, more respiration

166
Q

What are the receptors for sweet, umami and bitter tastes?

A

T1R= nice
Umami - T1R1, T1R3
Sweet - T1R2, T1R3
T2R= bitter

167
Q

What is the route of digestion in humans?

A

Mouth
Oesophagus
Stomach
Small intestine
Large intestine
Anus

168
Q

What part of the hypothalamus signals hunger and what part signals fullness?

A

Lateral- HUNGER
Ventro-medial- FULL

169
Q

What is bile?

A

Breakdown fat and neutralises acid
Produced in the liver, stored in gall bladder

170
Q

What is the duodenum, jejunum and ileum?

A

Duodenum- first part of small intestine
Jejunum- middle part of intestine
Ileum- Last part of the small intestine

171
Q

What does the hepatic system do?

A

The liver
Detoxifies blood
Stores glycogen
Secretes bile

172
Q

How is mucin stored?

A

Stored in vesicles
Charge neutralised by Ca2+
When released, mucin forms bonds with water
Becomes mucus

173
Q

What are the functions of saliva?

A

Lubrication
Initiate starch digestion
Neutralise acid
Immune response
Evaporation (heat loss)

174
Q

What are the processes of mucus secretion?

A

1) Primary secretion- serous cells
- Isotonic with plasma
- permeable to water
2) Secondary modification- duct cells
- impermeable to water
- Retain Na+, swap for K+ using H+

175
Q

What is the final concentration in the mucus dependent on?

A

Flow rate- how much time the duct cells have to modify the secretion

176
Q

How are some animals able to digest chitin?

A

Have enzyme Chitinase

177
Q

What are ways to digest cellulose?

A

Symbiotic relationship with organism that has cellulase
Fermentation of cellulose in the either foregut or hindgut

178
Q

What are some examples of hindgut and foregut fermenters?

A

Foregut- monkeys, cows, sloths
Hindgut- horses, rabbits

179
Q

What is the limitation of being a hindgut fermenter?

A

After fermentation in hindgut the food moves out
For foregut fermenters, the food is then passed through the digestive system

180
Q

What are the 4 compartments of a cow’s stomach? What are their roles?

A

Rumen- ferment
Reticulum- ferment
Omasum- pass food on
Obamasum- normal stomach, digest, secrete, absorb

181
Q

What is the Renal Tubule structure?

A

1) Bowman’s capsule
2) Proximal convoluted tubule
3) Descending thin limb
4) Loop of Henle
5) Ascending thin limb
6) Ascending thick limb
7) Distal convoluted tubule
8) Cortical collecting duct
9) Outer medullary collecting duct
10) Inner medullary collecting duct

182
Q

Outline 3 difference and 3 similarities between the mammalian and insect respiratory system

A

Sim
- have adapted a large surface area
- can be bidirectional
- short diffusion distance
- take in O2 give out CO2
Diff
- insect can be unidirectional, contain many entrances and exits
- insects straight into cells, mammals into RBC
- mammals have nasal cavity to store water

183
Q

How, when and from where is ADH released? What are the actions of ADH on the mammalian kidney?

A

Produced in hypothalamus
Released from posterior pituitary
Controlled by baroreceptors (BP and water content)
Increase the permeability to urea in the inner medullary collecting duct
More AQP2 to absorb more water

184
Q

List 3 effects of sympathetic nerve stimulation on the cardiovascular system and a further 3 effects on thermoregulation

A

Cardio
- Increase HR, BP and cardiac output (beta-1)
- Vasoconstriction, Sympathetic tone created
- Stronger contractions, greater pressure
Thermo
- Increase sweating (sweat glands)
- Increase shivering
- Controlling vasoconstriction (sympathetic tone)
- cause piloerection

185
Q

List TWO points of similarity and TWO points of difference relating to how a skeletal muscle fibre and an auditory hair cell in the mammalian inner ear become electrically excited, under normal circumstances (focus on those specific cells only, not any other cells that might be involved).

A

Sim
- both involve neurotransmitters
- both are depolarized when activated
- Depolarisation carried out by ion channels
Diff
- mechanical stimulation in auditory hair cells
- hair cells is for sensory, muscle fibre more of an effector
- hair cells lead to a more graded response

186
Q

Given action potentials are all-or-none events, how is a graded force produced by a single motor unit?

A

Spatial and temporal summation
[Describe]
More AP leads to more Ca release
More Ca binds to troponin to allow formation of actin-myosin cross bridges
Allowing for stronger contractions of muscle

187
Q

Explain how the autonomic nervous system contributes to the cardiovascular baroreflex response to a decrease in arterial blood pressure

A

Decrease in blood pressure detected by baroreceptors in arteries (carotid)
Response is vasoconstriction
Adrenergic receptors are located in smooth muscle (alpha 1)
Activated by noradrenaline from adrenal gland
Also heart can beat faster to increase pressure (beta 1)

188
Q

Summarise the key features which distinguish C3, C4 and CAM pathways.

A

C3 uses Rubisco, C4 and CAM uses PEPC
C4 and CAM create a 4 carbon compound
CAM is temporally separated, however C4 is spatially separated
Structure of the leaf is different C4 has Kranz anatomy

189
Q

Briefly describe three similarities and one difference between shoot and root apical meristems.

A

Sim
- Both contain rapidly dividing cells
- Cells can be undifferentiated stem cells
- Have a developmental role
Diff
- RAM has a root cap for protection
- Structure of zones is different

190
Q

Outline the events that occur in plant non-host resistance.

A

Reinforcement of physical barriers, by lignin
SAR (systemic acquired resistance) SA released to warn other tissue
PAMP (pathogen associated molecular patterns)- released by pathogen
Can then trigger immunity (antimicrobial compounds)

191
Q

Briefly compare the challenges posed by gravity to fluid transport in plants and animals and how these are overcome

A

Challenge is to move fluid against gravity
Also mammals to avoid blood pooling
Animals- higher blood pressure, from heart beating more, vessels constriction, Veins have valves to stop backflow
Plants- rely on transpiration and water cohesion,
narrow xylem vessels to maintain high pressure

192
Q

Briefly explain how plants might signal and respond to salt stress

A

Signalled by Ca2+, ROS signalling
- storage in a vacuole
- storage in vacuole of dying leaves (sea arrowgrass)
- compatible solutes (mannitol and proline)
- inclusion, use the ion gradient for uptake of water combined with compatible solutes to prevent toxicity

193
Q

Summarise the ways plants can increase their acquisition of nitrogen.

A

Form symbiotic relationships with mycorrhizal fungi
Increase surface area of roots
More NRT1.1 receptors to move in nitrate
Remobilize nitrogen from old sources to new leaves

194
Q

Write brief notes on the similarities and differences between the interactions of plants with fungal biotrophs and with mycorrhizal fung

A

Biotrophs- not symbiotic could cause harm to plant, uses up nutrients but doesn’t aid acquisition. may trigger defence response
Mycorrhizal- symbiotic relationship, mutually beneficial
Sim
- both form relationships with the roots, both exchange nutrients

195
Q

Compare and contrast the properties of wood in conifers and angiosperms

A

conifers- softwood, tracheids, stronger more rigid, greater amount of lignin, greater porosity
Angiosperms- more flexible, hard wood, less lignin contain vessels elements

196
Q

Compare and contrast the properties of wood and bone

A

Wood- cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin
Bone- collagen and hydroxyapatite
Properties- Wood is less flexible, strong in tension
Density- bone is denser
Same function- strength, stability

197
Q

What are the advantages of using tendons instead of muscle?

A

Tendon, takes up less space
More efficient, stores more elastic energy
Useful for stability
Lower metabolic cost

198
Q

Briefly explain how vertebrates transduce olfactory signals

A

Olfactory long receptors in nasal cavity
Triggers Golf (cAMP cascade)
opens cyclic nucleotide channels
Ca2+ and Na+ allowed in
Depolarisation
Straight to olfactory cortex

199
Q

List the factors influencing flow through a cylindrical vessel. What would be the effect of halving vessel radius? Give one example from animals and one from plants of when flow- rate through such a vessel would be substantially reduced below normal.

A

halving would decrease the rate by 16fold
By Poiseuille’s Law
Viscosity, radius, length of vessel
Plant- embolism
Animal- athersclerosis

200
Q

How would you calculate the resilience of a biological material? Outline the experimental procedure you would use and how you would calculate resilience from the data obtained

A

Measure tensile or compressional strength
Plot a stress- strain curve
stress= force/ cross sectional area
Strain= deformation/ original length
Area underneath represent resilience
Resilience= ability to absorb and store elastic energy

201
Q

List the main functions of: the glomerulus, the proximal tubule, the loop of Henle, the collecting duct and the vasa recta

A

Glomerulus- filtration, moves out water and solutes from the blood stream retains the large proteins in the blood
Proximal tubule- reabsorption, 65% of water and solutes is reabsorbed
Loop of Henle- counter current system to control and concentrate the uring, with the descending limb being permeable to water and ascending limb actively pumping out ions
Collecting duct- controls the conc of urine, permeability to water is controlled by ADH
Vasa Recta- blood vessels that remove solutes and water from the interstitial fluid, without changing the osmotic concentration in the counter current system

202
Q

What pieces of evidence are there for the presences of miniature end plate potentials (mEPP)?

A

mEPP- small potentials caused by accidental exocytosis of vesicles
1) Curare- drug that binds to NAChRs so blocks ACh, changes in potential suggests that ACh is responsible
2) Electrophysiological readings- readings of EPP, shows a small hump of depolarisation, not caused by nerve stimulation
3) Vesicle release blockers- block the exocytosis of neurotransmitter, leading to lack of mEPP and EPP, suggesting that ACh has a role
4) Ca Channel blockers- stops the movement of Ca, which means exocytosis can’t occur, again mEPP not created suggesting that it is formed by spontaneous release of neurotransmitter

203
Q

List 3 advantages and 3 disadvantages of a cardiovascular system

A

Adv
- higher metabolic rate
- bulk flow of nutrients
- organisms can become larger
- regulation of blood flow
Disadv
- Reliance on heart and vessels
- higher metabolic cost (O2 required)
- higher pressures required (dangerous)
- more stress on vessels

204
Q

Compare and contrast salivary secretion and sweat secretion

A

Sim
- both use Na/K ATPase to secrete ions
- both innervated by autonomic and are cholinergic
Diff
- sweat= sympathetic, salivary= parasympathetic
- sweat doesn’t undergo a lot of secondary modification
- location of glands secreting is different
- trigger for secretion is different

PoO (6 decks)

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