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PoO > Easter > Flashcards

Easter Flashcards

1
Q

What is positive and negative allometry?

A

Positive slope> expected
Negative slope < expected

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2
Q

What is the force of a muscle proportional to?

A

It’s cross sectional area

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3
Q

Does flight show negative or positive allometry and how?

A

Negative allometry
As muscles for flight increase in size so does the weight, and so harder for flight to be achieved

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4
Q

What are the uses of scaling relationships?

A

Drug dosage for people of different sizes
Determine flight and physiology of animals (extinct dinosaurs also)
Scale cardiac output

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5
Q

What are the effects of being a larger organism?

A

Small SA: Vol
Lower metabolic rate
Lower reproduction rate
More prone to extinction
Feed lower down in the food chain, where food is more abundant

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6
Q

What is the principle of continuity and how is it applied in the body?

A

Volume rate of fluid going into vessel is the same as the rate coming out of the vessel
Applied to vessels in the body
Rate dependent on velocity and area, total capillary area increases so velocity decreases, allowing for diffusion

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7
Q

How does Laplace’s law apply to the body?

A

Laplace’s law- shows relationship between pressure difference and tension on vessels
Tension is higher if radius increases, which is why for small capillaries tension is lower and no rupturing occurs

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8
Q

What are the main effects of gravity on the movement of blood?

A

Blood pooling at the bottom (legs)
Moving blood up against gravity
Maintaining constant blood pressure

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9
Q

How do giraffes overcome the problems of blood movement caused by gravity?

A

1) Stop pooling by having thick skin around legs to increase pressure, and contraction of muscles
2) Moving blood up, by creating a higher pressure in the heart to send blood to the head
3) Maintain constant BP, by having baro-reflexes that detect changes and control the cardiac output and HR, when bending down to drink

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10
Q

How are snakes adapted for different environments?

A

Arboreal- capable of managing changes in BP, heart is closer to head, thinner bodies to maintain high BP
Aquatic- larger, unable to manage changes in BP

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11
Q

How is water moved up the xylem?

A

Cohesion- tension, water molecules form bonds with each other and pull each other up
Negative pressure is created at the leaves by transpiration of water

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12
Q

How are xylem vessels and tracheids adapted for water transport?

A

Lignified walls maintaining pressure
Bordered pits, allowing flow of water between plant cells, which can be blocked off by TORUS, e.g. stop embolism spreading

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13
Q

What are the advantages and disadvantages of having a compound eye?

A

Adv
-Wide field of view
-Very sensitive to motion, as there are many ommatidia
- Fast acclimation to bright light- individually react
- High temporal resolution- due to great density of ommatidia
Disadv
-Lower spatial resolution- each ommatidia provide lower spatial acuity
-Reduced depth perception
- Inability to focus- each ommatidia has a fixed focal length

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14
Q

What are the advantages and disadvantages of a single lens eye?

A

Adv
- Higher spatial acuity
- Greater depth of perception
- Ability to focus
- Colour vision (also possible in compound eyes)
Disadv
- Slower at detecting movement
- Reduced sensitivity in low light environment
- More vulnerable to damage

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15
Q

What are short receptors?

A

self contained cells, that then stimulate afferent nerve

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16
Q

What are long receptors?

A

Contain afferent nerve, signal straight to the CNS

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17
Q

What are 2 ways signals can be amplified?

A

Ionotropic- signal directly activates channels
Metabotropic- signal binds to receptors, that leads to production of a secondary messenger e.g. cAMP

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18
Q

How does plant and animal signalling differ?

A

Plant commonly two component with receptor kinase (P histidine) and response regulator (P aspartate)
Animals - GPCRs or ionotropic

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19
Q

What is slow and fast adaptation to a stimulus?

A

Fast- receptor potential decreases rapidly, contains less firing of AP
Slow- receptor potential decreases over time, more firing of AP, over a long time

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20
Q

What are examples of short and long receptors?

A

Short- Hair cells, taste receptors
Long- ipRGC, olfactory, Meissner, Merkel, Pacinian, Ruffini

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21
Q

What receptor is present in the eye?

A

Gt PCR
alpha subunit detaches and activates PDE
PDE turns cGMP to 5’GMP
Cyclic nucleotide channel closes
Hyperpolarisation occurs
Lower levels of Ca2+ activates GC to make cGMP which restores the dark current

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22
Q

What is the difference between vertebrate and invertebrate phototransduction?

A

Vertebrate- ciliary receptors, ROD= membranous discs, CONE= invaginations of membrane, Gt pathway activated
Invertebrate- microvillar photoreceptors, called rhabdoms, activates Gq and PLC pathway

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23
Q

Describe archaea phototransduction

A

by phototaxis not GPCR
Photon leads to conformational change
Important in controlling flagella movement

24
Q

Briefly explain how vertebrates transduce olfactory signals

A

1) Chemicals bind to olfactory receptors on the cilia
2) Golf is activated alpha subunit uncouples
3) Alpha subunit activates the cAMP pathway
4) cAMP opens cyclic nucleotide channels
5) Na+ and Ca2+ move in
6) Membrane is depolarised
7) Olfactory are long receptors so message sent straight to the olfactory cortex

25
Q

What is stress?

A

Ratio of external forces to the cross sectional area

26
Q

What is strain?

A

Amount of deformation of material by stress

27
Q

What is stiffness?

A

How much a material resists applied forces and doesn’t stretch or flow

28
Q

What is resilience?

A

Ability to absorb energy when deformed, and release that energy when unloaded

29
Q

How can stiffness be calculated and give an example of a ‘low’ and ‘high’ stiffness material in the body?

A

Stiffness can be calculated using the Young’s Modulus
Looking at the stress- strain curve, the slope of the curve signifies the stiffness
low YM= tendons
high YM= bone

30
Q

What is an example of a material with a J shaped stress strain curve?

A

Arterial walls and skin
- sharp increase in stress when at high strain
- composition (elastin + collagen)

31
Q

What is an example of a material with an S shaped stress strain curve?

A

Bone
- crystalline structure
- tougher than J shaped
- layered to avoid exploitation of cracks

32
Q

What is toughness?

A

Ability to withstand force without fracturing. How much deformation can occur before fracture

33
Q

What is hardness?

A

Resistance of a material to permanent deformation

34
Q

What is vicoelasticity?

A

Property for a material to act viscous and elastic
Large difference between E loaded and E unloaded, would be typical of a vicoelastic material

35
Q

What is compression?

A

Forces pushing inwards

36
Q

What is tension?

A

Stretching forces, pulling

37
Q

What side of the branch is undergoing the most tension?

A

Top side of the branch

38
Q

How do trees adapt to changes in location of tension and compression?

A

By being pre-stressed
Outside and inside layers are undergoing different forces
This avoids the formation of tension cracks, when swaying
Outside- cells are shortening, so tension is present
Inside- cells are lengthening, and so compression is present

39
Q

What are 3 ways trees attach to the ground?

A

1) Compressive buttressing- strong lateral roots, resist compressive load (weight)
2) Tensile buttressing- Long, thin, act as anchors that trees can pull on when swaying (e.g. rainforest trees)
3) Tap roots- vertical roots, resist movement

40
Q

Compare muscular hydrostats and skeletal muscles

A

Skeletal
- attach to bone,
- contract by shortening sarcomeres
Muscle hydrostats
-don’t attach/ contain bone
-change in diameter changes length
- rely on hydrostatic pressure
» tongues and tentacles

41
Q

What are the advantages of replacing muscle with tendons?

A
  • tendons less metabolic demand
  • tendons lighter
  • tendons act as power amplifiers
42
Q

Compare and contrast how plants and animals sense light

A

Animals
- rhodopsin in the eye
- GtPCR
- binds to PDE
- cGMP turned to 5’GMP
- cyclic nucleotide gated channels close
- hyperpolarisation
- stimulate afferent nerve
Plants
- phytochromes, cryptochrome, photoropin
- Pfr when active can move into the nucles
- UVR8 detects UV
- phototropsim - PHOT1, PHOT2 stops movement, PIN3 resumes movement

43
Q

What is the effect of the activation of ipRGCs?

A

-ipRGCs activate the PLC pathway and TRP channels
-Sending message straight to the brain (long receptors)
- more secondary messengers move in Ca2+ and cAMP
- PKA activated
- phosphorylates CREB which is a TF for clock proteins

44
Q

How is the speed of the circadian clock changed?

A

Activation of ipRGCs (intracellular photosensitive retinal GCs)
cAMP pathway and activation of PKA
PKA leads to activation of CREB
CREB is a TF for clock proteins
Clock proteins inhibit CREB, but have a short lifespan and are broken down

45
Q

Compare the activation of taste receptors and olfactory receptors

A
  • Taste can be ionotropic or metabotropic, olfactory is metabotropic
    -Olfactory is Golf, signals cAMP pathway
    Metabotropic taste= PLC pathway
  • Olfactory long receptor, taste is short
46
Q

How is chemosensation detected in vertebrates and invertebrates?

A

Chemo- chemicals= smell
Vertebrates= olfactory, cAMP, long receptor
Invertebrates= ionotropic, sensilla, located all over body

47
Q

How do hair cells show evolution?

A
  • Evolved from the lateral line in fish, which were the first to sense changes in water pressure
  • now found in the cochlea (ear), lateral line (fish) and vestibular apparatus (balance)
48
Q

How does depolarisation occur in a hair cell?

A

Bending of hairs towards the tallest hair
Hairs are attached at the top by tip-link
Leaning causes opening of trap door like channels
Allowing movement of ions in
Via IONOTROPIC transduction

49
Q

How is gravity detected?

A

Movement of otoliths in the ear
Otoliths rest on hair cells
Changes in location of otolith is caused by changes in gravity direction
Otolith made of calciumc carbonate

50
Q

How is sound transduced from waves in air to an electrical impulse?

A

Ossicles in the middle ear change sound waves into waves transmitted through the endolymph
In the cochlea there is a basilar membrane, surrounded in endolymph
Sound of a specific frequency will activate hair cells at a specific part of the basilar membrane
Basilar membrane high frequency closest, low frequency furthest away
Activation of hair cells, leads to influx of ions, and ionotropic transduction

51
Q

How is activation of touch sensors on skin transduced?

A

Merkel, Meissner, Pacinian, Ruffini
Trap door like
Ionotropic transduction
TRP channels open for pain, of a wide variety

52
Q

What are the characteristics of TRP channels?

A

Non-selective cation channels (polymodal)
Detect different types and forms of pain
Consist of 6 transmembrane components
Allow flow of ions through them

53
Q

Compare and contrast phototransduction in vertebrates and invertebrates

A

Sim
Both have chromophores that undergo conformational change
Both GPCR
Diff
-Vertebrates- Ciliary photoreceptors, Invertebrates- microvillar photoreceptors
-Vertebrates= Gt, Invertebrates= Gq
- Vertebrates= PDE pathway, Invertebrates = PLC pathway
- vertebrates hyperpolarise, invertebrate depolarise

54
Q

What are the key differences between the walking and running gait?

A

Walking
Inverted pendulum
Slowest at top
Kinetic and potential E out of phase
Running
Bouncing ball
Slowest when hit ground
Have air time
Kinetic and potential E in phase

55
Q

Describe the structure of bone

A

Contains blood vessels in Haversian canal
Osteocytes connected via canaliculi
Osteblasts deposit
Osteoclasts erode

56
Q

What is the reason for the Trabecular bone?

A

Bone fills along lines of greatest stress
Remodeled and adapted
Ensures stability while saving material

PoO (6 decks)

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