Methodology

Question 1

Sommers-Flangan and Zeleke (2015)

Answer 1

the clinical interview involves a professional relationship between a mental health provider and a patient/client.

• it’s a dialogue between psychologist and patient that is designed to help the psychologist diagnose and plan treatment for the patient.

Question 2

what are the 4 primary goals of a clinical interview which includes informed consent?

Answer 2

1. Initiation of a therapeutic alliance(relationship)
2. Assessment/diagnostic data collection (diagnosis)
3. case formulation +/or (treatment plan)
4. Implementation of a psychological intervention (treatment)

Question 3

interview techniques for a clincial interview

Answer 3

• psychologists need to offer a safe spacefor discussion
• client needs to feel no judgementso they can open up to them

-confidentiality - reminding a patient that their info will not be shared with others unless immediate danger to patient/someone else - will help to build trust and allow patient to be honest.

• ask open-ended Q- gives more insight into what the client is thinking. close-ended gives a yes/no answer- no insight achieved of patients feelings/thoughts. More detail given with open ended Q
  EG ‘how do you feel’ instead of ‘do you feel depressed’
• psychologists should listen to more than just words of client - non-verbal cues like patients posture and tone of voice can provide valuable info.
  EG- ‘im fine’ - may believe, but patient is twisting hand on lap giving signs something else is going on

Question 4

Morrison (1995) + Okun (2001)

Answer 4

Clinical interviewing is used to monitor daily functioning and client progress. May be used to evaluate the process by asking clients Q concerning degree to which sessions were helpful

Question 5

Types of clinical interview

Intake Interview

Answer 5

focuses on gathering info.
Therapists generally gather demographic info(marital status,race,ethnicity+emplyment) and info on current problems (freq of problem,degree problem affects functioning)

Additional Q asked about social support, medical history and current meds

may as Q regarding suicide, substance use + issues with violence

• info gathered during initial clinical interview influences treatment plan, so honest communication is essential for accurate asessment.

Question 6

types of clinical interview

Psychodiagnostic Interviewing

Answer 6

• variant of intake interview
• purpose of psychiatrics diagnosis - to describe clients current condition, prognosis and guide treatment
• is controversial. Some clinicians view it as essential to treatment planning and positive treatment outcomes** (Frances 2013) ** Others view similar to Carl Rogers (1957) who concludes diagnostic knowledge is not essential to psychotherapy. May be a colossal waste of time.

Question 7

types of clinical interview

Benefits of Psychodiagnostic Interviewing

Answer 7

• standadisation
• clear diagnostic focus
• identification of psychiatric conditions to facilitate clinical research and treatment **(Lilienfeld,Smith and Watts, 2013) **

Question 8

types of clinical interview

Limitations of Psychodiagnostic Interviewing

Answer 8

• extensive training required
• substantial time for administration
• excess structure and rigidity that restrain experienced clinicians
• questionable reliability and validity especially in real life settings
  (Sommers-Flanagan and Sommers-Flanagan ,2017)

Question 9

types of clinical interview

Mental status Exam (MSE)

Answer 9

• clinicians collect symptoms-related data to communicate info to colleagues about clients mental status
• conducted **daily/hourly **
• patients behaviours,appereance, attitude + movements observed to work out mental state of patient not just their answers to Q **(Sommers-Flanagan 2016) **
• used on** any patient** even on those lucid often used when pateint** can’t talk clearly about problems**
• some administer Mini-Mental state Evaluation (MMSE), while others unstructured assessemtn interview. others integrate few structured MSE Q into a less structured interview process (Sommers-Flanagan,2017)

Question 10

types of clinical interview

Mental status Exam (MSE)
what should mental status examiners base their reports on ?

Answer 10

Their direct observations and minimise interpretive statements.
- special care to cross check conclusive statements (triangulation) necessary when writing about clients who are part of opressed minority groups. (Sommers-Flanagan and Sommers-Flanagan ,2017)

• Triangulation is essential in situations where patients may have memory problems/be motiviated to over/under report symptoms **(Suhr,2015) **

Question 11

types of clinical interview

Define triangulation

Answer 11

Triangulation happens when one or both of the people involved in the conflict try to pull a third person into the dynamic, often with the goal of: deflecting some of the tension. creating another conflict to take the spotlight off the original issue. reinforcing their sense of rightness or superiority.

Question 12

types of clinical interview

Suicide Assessement Interviewing

Answer 12

• gold standard for suicide assessment and intervention (Sommers,Flanagan 2018) despite it not being reliable/valid method for predicting death by suicide (Large and Ryan 2014)

Question 13

what are the 8 superordinate suicide dimentions

Answer 13

• unbearable emotional or psychological distress: can involve 1+ traumas/loss/emotionally disturbing experiences
• problem solving impairments: depressive state can reduce client problem solving abilities.
• interpersonal disconnection,isolation,or feelings of being a social burden:percieving oneslef as a burden contributes to suicidal conditions
• Arousal or agitation: many diff psych states increase this and push clients towards using suicide as sol to their unbearable distress.
• hoplessness:cognitive variable linked to suicide risk. contributes to problem-solv impairements.
• -suicide treatment plan: when ideation accompanied by active suicide plan and suicide intent, potential of death by suicide is magnified
• desensitizarion to physical pain and thoughts of death: fear of death and aversion to physical pain are natural suicide deteerent, when client loses fear, suicide behaviours increase
• Access to firearms: access can increase risk of suicide

Question 14

methadology of clinical interviews

Structured interview

Answer 14

• same Q be asked to each client in idential manner
• provides more consistent info
  EG: Diagnostic Interview Schedule (DIS)
• may not be appropriate for clients with less common problems or clients from diverse cultures

Question 15

methadology of clinical interviews

Unstructured interviews

Answer 15

• allows clinicial to determine Q and topics covered during interview.
• can be adjusted to ind client - effectiveness depends on clinicians interviewing skillls and ability to interpret clients answers.

Question 16

methadology of clinical interviews

Semi-Structured interviews

Answer 16

• combines formats.
• Specfic Q asked but coupled with oppertunities to explore unique client circumstances to provide greater insight into clients specific perspectives (De Jonckheere and Vaughn, 2019)

EG: PRISM designed to deal with prob of psych diagnosis when patients drink heavily/use drugs.Helpful to diagnose mental disorders and chemically induced disorders. Max reliability and valid in heavy drinkers and drug users.

Question 17

methadology of clinical interviews

Benefits of clinical interviews

Answer 17

• Uncovers valuable info that psychologist needs to diagnose and/or treat patients
• gives the psychologist access to both verbal and non-verbal info about client
• build trust between psych and client. trust is important during interview, equally during treatment, Connection made directly affects course of therapy

Question 18

methadology of clinical interviews

Limitations of clinical interviews

Answer 18

• don’t know if patient is telling truth. client truthfullness biggest drawback. interview format assumes honesty, sometimes patients aren’t/can’t be honest.
• possible interviewer bias affecting response/answer interpretation
• difficult to replicate- cause and effect cannot be inferred. (Solution - inter-rater reliability, triangulation)

Question 19

methadology of clinical interviews

Conclusion - clinical interview

Answer 19

To conclude, the different types of clinical interviews, ie, intake, diagnostic diagnostic, MSE, and suicide assessment, enable the clinician to obtain specific information and to explore behaviour or response in depth. A structured interview has reliability, validity, and allows for predictive behaviour (Sommers-Flanagan; Jobes) while a semi structured interview provides greater insight into a client’s perspectives (De
Jonckheere & Vaughn, 2019) and can take cultural differences into account. Despite the drawbacks of possible interpreter bias that can be overcome by interrater
reliability and triangulation of methods which are time consuming (Suhr), clinical interviews are one of the best ways to assess clients and are often the first form of assessment used by psychologists to increase a clinician’s understanding of the client.

Question 20

Ethnographic research

What is Ethnography?

Answer 20

style of reseach involving fieldwork that involves the ethnographer participating, overtly or covertly, in people’s daily lives for an extended period of time, watching what happens, listening to what is said, asking questions, in fact, collecting whatever data are available to throw light on issues that are the focus of the research (Hammersely and Attkinson 1995)

Question 21

What type of research method is ethnography?

Answer 21

Qualitative.
refers to scientific description of different races and cultures. It is a non-manipulative study of the cultural characteristics of a particular ethnic group, carried out in a natural setting.

Question 22

Ethnographic research with children - Same or different?

Answer 22

Research with children should not take for granted an adult/child distinction (Christensen & James 2000), yet the adult
researcher who wishes to research with children must confront generational issues (Mayall, 2000).

Question 23

Steps in Ethnographic Research

Answer 23

1. Identify research question
2. Determine location for research
3. Formulate presentation method
4. Acquire permission and access
5. Ethical approval
6. Collect data (observe and participate, interviews, archival data)
7. Code and analyse data (code and label data, sort for patterns, identify outliers, take notes)
8. Report findings

Question 24

Factors to consider with Ethnographic research

Answer 24

Anticipate - Range of ethical issues, potential difficulties and dilemmas, emotional costs of doing fieldwork (Lee-Treweek & Linkogle, 2000).

• Dilemmas (planning versus practice) * How far would you go to get good data? How far would you go to build rapport and develop field relationships? * What are your boundaries?
• Sampling * Which fieldsite and why? * Which locations/settings? * How many children and adults? * Adult gatekeepers * Negotiating access * Levels of consent.
• Practicalities of doing Fieldwork * Where to stay? * Time * ‘hanging out’ time at start * time to write up fieldnotes * time off * Rapport * signs of acceptance * some will not want to participate.
• Reflexivity - involves reflection by ethnographers on the social processes that impinge upon and influence data. It requires a critical attitude towards data, and recognition of the influence on the research of such factors as the location of the setting, the sensitivity of the topic and the nature of the social interaction between the researcher and researched. In the absence of reflexivity, the strengths of the data are exaggerated and/or the weaknesses underemphasized (Brewer, 2000).

Reflexivity can become self-regarding, pompous indulgence in which more is learned about the fieldworker than the field. What ethnographers practice and what they preach can vary significantly (Calvey, 2000).

• Analysing discomfort & awkwardness * Willingness to embrace a rigorous reflexive process * Intellectual productivity: gain insights and valuable data * Enhanced empathy with participants * Uncomfortable fieldwork is often very good fieldwork (Hume & Mulcock, 2004).
• Leaving the field * Giving something back * Paying participants? * Gifts: what is appropriate?
• Practical dimension - prepare yourself and participants. Leave enough time
• Emotional dimension * Dissemination * Communication * Going back to visit?

Question 25

Strengths of Ethnographic reseearch

Answer 25

• Build relationships through combining informal interviewing and participant observation. Therefore, data is highly valid.
• Depth of understanding - contextual meanings provide very rich and detailed data. Multiple perspectives can be accessed that can be very rewarding.

Question 26

Limitations of ethnographic research

Answer 26

• Reflexivity: acknowledge that researchers may influence the research context since they become part of the social world they are studying (Hammersley & Atkinson, 1995).
• It may be flexible, but data collection can be complex and difficult with regards to day-to-day survival. It can be intense, time-consuming, practical difficulties, expensive (accommodation, unexpected costs), and emotionally draining (Punch, 2012).
• In-depth research, but the limited numbers of participants make the findings not easily comparable.
• Difficulties in analysis and write up if the research provides too much data.
• Impose on participants time and privacy.
• Raises many ethical dilemmas – informed consent, withdrawal, confidentiality.
• Fear, self-doubt and feelings of failure can haunt us throughout our entire stay in the field. It is important to acknowledge these feelings (Hume & Mulcock, 2004).

Question 27

Ethnographic Fieldwork, Punch in Bolivia (2002)

Answer 27

• 2 year ethnographic fieldwork study on rural childhoods in Bolivia, exploring children’s daily lives in a community of 68 households.
• expectation that children should be responsible for their children’s in old age, whether that be physical care or financial support.

Question 28

Aim of Ethnographic Fieldwork, Punch in Bolivia (2002)

Answer 28

The aim was to investigate school-to-work youth transitions in an area where young people are particularly constrained by poverty
and isolation.

Question 29

what did the fieldwork include? Ethnographic Fieldwork, Punch in Bolivia (2002)

Answer 29

included participant observation, classroom task-based methods and interviews with all members of a sample of 18 households with 60 children.

The research took place during regular visits between 1993-1995 and a six-month intensive
period in 1996.

Question 30

Ethnographic Fieldwork, Punch in Bolivia (2002) - when did young people in Bolivia decide their futures ?

Answer 30

In Bolivia young people decide their futures after primary school. Children choose
from: a) migrating to another larger rural community to continue their formal education, b) working in the community, or c) seeking migrant work in the regional town or in neighbouring Argentina.

Question 31

What did Punch explore ? - Ethnographic Fieldwork, Punch in Bolivia (2002)

Answer 31

explored how young people navigate constraints over their choice of transition,
including economic resources and family background, parental attitudes, gender, and birth
order.

Question 32

Findings - Ethnographic Fieldwork, Punch in Bolivia (2002)

Answer 32

• Only two girls and two boys from the wealthiest families were at secondary school,
  representing less than 7% of the sixty 13–19-year-olds.
• Over half of the young people (52%)
  had migrated in search of paid work either in the nearby town or in rural Argentina and 42%
  had remained within the community to work at home or for another household.
• More girls than boys were likely to seek urban migrant work in Bolivia rather than migrate to rural Argentina, and older children worked to support the education costs of younger siblings.

Question 33

Conclusion - Ethnographic Fieldwork, Punch in Bolivia (2002)

Answer 33

– Young people in rural Bolivia have a strong sense of responsibility and obligation
to their family, and long-term family interdependence tends to be maintained.

Each young person considers the benefits and drawbacks of staying or leaving according to
their individual situation and personal preferences. Punch, therefore, argues that the notion
of negotiated interdependence is a more appropriate way to understand youth transitions and relations between young people and adults.

Question 34

Cross-Sectional Study involve looking at?

Answer 34

involves looking at data from a population at one specific point in time.

• observational in nature and are known as descriptive research not casual. Researchers record the information that is present in
  a population, but they do not manipulate variables.

Question 35

when is a cross- sectional study method often used?

Answer 35

to make inferences about possible relationships or to gather preliminary data to support further research and
experimentation.

Question 36

Cross-sectional study

Answer 36

-The study takes place at a single point in time
-It does not involve manipulating variables
- It allows researchers to look at numerous characteristics at once (age, income, gender, etc.)
- It’s often used to look at the prevailing characteristics in a given population
- It can provide information about what is happening in a current population

Question 37

benefits of a cross sectional study

Answer 37

Inexpensive and Fast - Cross-sectional studies allow researchers to collect a great deal of information quickly. Data is often obtained inexpensively using self-report surveys and
researchers are able to gather large amounts of information from a large pool of participants.

• Multiple Variables - Researchers can collect data on a few different variables to see how differences in sex, age, educational status, and income, for example, might correlate with the critical variable of interest.
• Prompts Further Study - cross-sectional studies can provide a useful springboard to further research. For example, researchers might be interested in learning how exercise influences cognitive health as people age. They might collect data from different age groups on how much exercise they get and how well they perform on cognitive tests. Performing such a study can give researchers clues about the types of exercise that might be the most beneficial
  to cognitive health and inspire further experimental research on the subject.
• **Attrition rate **- Since data is collected all at once, it’s less likely that participants will quit the study before data is fully collected.

Question 38

Limitations of a cross-sectional study

Answer 38

**Cause and Effect **- extraneous variables can affect the relationship between the inferred cause and
outcomes, and this type of research doesn’t allow for conclusions about causation.

• Cohort Differences - Groups can be affected by cohort differences that arise from the particular experiences of a unique group of people. For example, studying students during COVID will be
  different to those studying before or after COVID.
• Report Biases - Surveys or questionnaires about certain aspects of people’s lives may not always result in accurate reporting, and it is difficult to verify this information (interrater reliability?).

Question 39

Longitudinal Research

Answer 39

study is a type of correlational research study that involves looking at variables over an extended period of time. This research can take place over a period of weeks, months, or even years. Data is first collected at the outset of the study and may then be repeatedly gathered throughout the length of the study.

Question 40

Doing longitudinal research what does it allow the resarcher to observe?

Answer 40

observe how variables may change over time.

Longitudinal studies are usually observational in nature and are a type of correlational research. Quite often, a longitudinal study is an extended case study and is a purely qualitative undertaking.

Question 41

What are the 3 major types of longitudinal studies?

Answer 41

1.Panel study: Involves sampling a cross-section of individuals.

2.** Cohort study:** Involves selecting a group based on a specific event such as birth, geographic location, or historical experience.

3. Retrospective study: Involves looking to the past by looking at historical information such as medical records.

Question 42

Benefits of a longitudinal study

Answer 42

• can provide researchers with a unique insight that looks at changes over time.
• useful when studying development and lifespan issues.

For example, identical twins reared together versus those reared apart. Researchers track
participants from childhood into adulthood to determine whether growing up in a different environment influences things such as achievement. Since the participants share the same genetics, it is assumed that any differences are due to environmental factors.
Researchers can then look at what the participants have in common versus where they
differ to see which characteristics are more strongly influenced by either genetics or
experience – useful to determine elements of NATURE vs NURTURE.

Question 43

limitations of a longitudinal study

Answer 43

-**Can Be Expensive **- require enormous amounts
of time and are often quite expensive. Because of this, these studies often have only a
small group of subjects, which makes it difficult to apply the results to a larger population.

*** Attrition Rate **- participants sometimes drop out of the study, shrinking the sample size and
decreasing the amount of data collected. This tendency is known as selective attrition.

Participants might drop out because they have moved away from the area, due to illness, or
simply losing the motivation to participate. This can influence the results of the study. If the
final group no longer reflects the original representative sample, attrition can threaten the
validity of the experiment. If the final group of participants is not a representative sample, it
is difficult to generalize the results to the rest of the population.

Question 44

Cross-Sectional vs. Longitudinal Studies

Answer 44

-Cross-sectional studies are designed to look at a variable at a particular point in time. Longitudinal studies involve taking multiple measures over an extended period.

• Longitudinal studies tend to require more resources and are often more expensive than cross sectional resources.
• Longitudinal studies are also more likely to be influenced by selective attrition, where some individuals are simply more likely to drop out of a study than others. This can influence the validity of the study.

Question 45

what is The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNCRC)?

Answer 45

is a legally binding
international agreement setting out the civil, political, economic, social, and cultural rights of
every child, regardless of their race, religion or abilities.

Question 46

who was The UNCRC adopted by ?

Answer 46

the United Nations General Assembly in 1989.

Question 47

What does the UNCRC convension say?

Answer 47

The Convention says childhood is separate from adulthood, and lasts until 18; it is a special, protected time, in which children must be allowed to grow, learn, play, develop and flourish with dignity.

Question 48

What has the UNCRC convension inspired the government to change?

Answer 48

• to change laws and policies so that more children get the health care and nutrition they need to survive and develop, and there are stronger safeguards in place to protect children from violence and exploitation.

-It has also enabled more children to have their voices heard and participate in their societies.

Question 49

UNCRC - Appropriate articles will impact on ethical considerations in research, for example
Article 16

specifies that children have the right to privacy.

Answer 49

1. No child shall be subjected to arbitrary or unlawful interference with his or her privacy, family, home or correspondence, nor to unlawful attacks on his or her honour and reputation.

Question 50

UNCRC - Appropriate articles will impact on ethical considerations in research, for example
**Article 13 **

These rights also relate to processes of gathering data from children, such as Article 13 that specifies that children can share what they think in a way they chose to, perhaps using
drawings.

Answer 50

1. The child shall have the right to freedom of expression; this right shall include freedom to seek, receive and impart information and ideas of all kinds, regardless of frontiers, either orally, in writing or in print, in the form of art, or through any other media of the child’s choice.

Question 51

UNCRC - Appropriate articles will impact on ethical considerations in research, for example **Article 20 **

However, even though decisions regarding children’s best interests are made, this does
not guarantee that children will be placed in a supportive and caring environment (Article
20). In the UK, almost two thirds of allegations of abuse in 2020 to 2021 (1,585 or 61%)
were made by children against their foster carers. Just over half (54%) of all allegations
resulted in an outcome of no further action (UK National Statistics, 2021).

Answer 51

1. A child temporarily or permanently deprived of his or her family environment, or in whose own best interests cannot be allowed to remain in that environment, shall be entitled to special protection and assistance provided by the State.
2. States Parties shall in accordance with their national laws ensure alternative care for such a child.

Question 52

What is mindfulness?

Answer 52

encompasses two key ingredients:awareness and acceptance.

Awareness is
the knowledge and ability to focus attention on one’s inner processes and experiences, such
as the experience of the present moment.

Acceptance is the ability to observe and accept—rather than judge or avoid—those streams of thought.

Question 53

What is mindfulness?

Answer 53

encompasses two key ingredients:awareness and acceptance.

Awareness is
the knowledge and ability to focus attention on one’s inner processes and experiences, such
as the experience of the present moment.

Acceptance is the ability to observe and accept—rather than judge or avoid—those streams of thought.

Question 54

Mindfulness

Dweck

Answer 54

Dweck likened mindfulness to a growth mindset where motivation and self-regulation,
regulated through effort and persistence, affects achievement and interpersonal processes.

This contrasts with a fixed mindset where people believe they are born with abilities, such
as intelligence, that cannot change.

Question 55

What is the purpose of mindfulness?

Answer 55

The goal of mindfulness is tocultivate perspective on
one’s consciousnessandidentitythat can bring greater peace mentally and relationally.

Question 56

What’s the difference between mindfulness and meditation?

Answer 56

Mindfulness is one form
ofmeditation. Meditation utilizes various practices to quiet the mind or achieve a higher level
of consciousness, one of which is mindfulness.Mindfulness can be cultivated within or outside
of formal meditationand woven into any activity, such as taking a walk or being engaged in
conversation.

Question 57

How does mindfulness help relieve anxiety?

Answer 57

Mindfulness encompasses awareness and acceptance, which can help peopleunderstand and
cope with uncomfortable emotions,allowing them to gain control and relief. To cultivate these skills, concentrate on breathing to lengthen and deepen your breaths. Foster an awareness of the five senses. Notice your thoughts and feelings, and practice curiosity and self-compassion.

Question 58

what are the Benefits of Mindfulness?

Answer 58

Mindfulness is frequently used in meditation and certain kinds of therapy.

Its benefits include
lowering stress levels, reducing harmful ruminating, and protecting againstdepressionand
anxiety.

Research even suggests that mindfulness can help people better cope with rejection
andsocial isolation.

Question 59

benefits of mindfulness

Evidence- Enhancing social, emotional, and cognitive development

Answer 59

Research has shown that teaching children mindfulness can impact their cognitive skills, particularly the executive functions performed by the brain.

Executive functions are responsible for a person’s ability to pay attention, switch focus, organize information, remember details, and engage in planning

Question 60

Flesher (2020)

Answer 60

• hypothesized that mindfulness training through meditation may minimize influences that interfere with prefrontal cortical function, and cultivate the growth of children’s social-emotional, physical, and cognitive development.

Findings - After completion of the program, the children’s attention scores increased significantly. Slightly over 64% of students that participated showed a 20% increase in attention skills which were measured by the computerized Attention Network Test child version (ANT-C), that included a child’s executive control performance.

Question 61

Moser et al. (2011)

Answer 61

measured the electrical brain activity as students encountered an error. Those with a fixed mindset showed less activity than those with a growth mindset who engaged deeply with the problem.

Question 62

Strength of using mindfulness to enhance the development of children

Answer 62

Mindfulness meditation helps children to concentrate on tasks aiding cognitive development as they learn to ignore distractions as Moore and Malinowski (2009) found that there was a positive correlation between high levels of meditation and attentional control so ppts that pay more attention to tasks may improve cognitive function

Question 63

Strength of using mindfulness to enhance the development of children

Answer 63

Mindfulness meditation helps children to concentrate on tasks aiding cognitive development as they learn to ignore distractions as Moore and Malinowski (2009) found that there was a positive correlation between high levels of meditation and attentional control so ppts that pay more attention to tasks may improve cognitive function

Question 64

Weakness of using mindfulness to enhance the development of children

Answer 64

School based mindfulness programmes often require all students to participate so they may not engage in the process if they are not committed to the programme. Therefore, it may not be effective in enhancing children’s social, emotional, or cognitive development, limiting the practical application in everyday school life.