metabolism, renal, reproductive Flashcards
result of lactic acid fermentation
2 molecules lactic acid
2 molecules of ATP
triglycerides break down into_____ through _____
acetyl coA
beta oxidation
what two things can happen to acetyl coA
enter CAC
ketone body formation in liver
transamination
transfer of amine group to keto acid to form a non-essential amino acid
oxidative deamination
if amino acids are used for energy, ammonia and keto acid is produced
BUN
blood urea nitrogen- may be elevated (uremia) in acute adn chronic renal failure
what is uric acid synthesized from
adenine and guanine. normally excreted in small amounts in urine
glycogenesis
excess glucose to glycogen
lipogenesis
glucose and amino acids used to synthesize lipids
glycogenolysis
breakdown of glycogen
gluconeogenesis
formation of glucose from amino acids and glycerol (opposite of glycolysis)
absorptive state
period immediately after eating where nutrients absorbed through intestinal wall into circulatory and lymphatic system
postabsorptive state
after absorptive state when blood glucose levels are maintained by conversion of other molecules
functions of urinary system
elimination of waste, filtering blood, regulation of blood volume, concentration of solutes, pH, blood cell synthesis, synthesis of vitamin D
which kidney is slightly lower
right
renal capsule
fibrous connective tissue surrounding kidney
perirenal fat
engulfs renal capsule and acts as cushion
renal fascia
thin layer of loose connective tissue (anchors kidney to abdominal wall)
hilum
renal artery and nerves enter and renal vein and ureter exit kidneys
cortex
outer area of kidney
medulla
inner area of kidney
renal pyramids
cone shaped
base is boundary between medulla/cortex
apex is the renal pailla
calyces
converge to form pelvis
pelvis
enlarged chamber in the middle of the kidney
ureter
connects kidney to urinary bladder
what type of tissue is the bladder made of
transitional epithelium
blood flow through the kidney
renal artery, segmental artery, interlobar artery, arcuate artery, interlobular artery, afferent arteriole, glomerulus, efferent arteriole, peritubular cappilary, vasa recta, interlobar vein, arcuate vein, interlobar vein, renal vein
what are the 4 parts of the nephron
bowman’s capsule, proximal tubule, loop of henle, distal tubule
what is the path of urine out of the body
collecting duct, papillary duct, minor calyses, major calyses, renal pelvis, ureter, urinary bladder, urethra
what is the difference between juxtamedullary nephrons and cortical nephrons
juxtamedullary loop of henle extends deep into medulla and cortical loop of henle does not go as deep
what three processes are involved in filtering blood
filtration, reabsorption, and secretion
what is the outer and inner layers of the bowman’s capsule made of
outer- simple squamous epithelium
podocytes
where is renin produced
juxtaglomerular apparatus
renal fraction
% of total cardiac output that passes through the kidneys average 21%
renal blood flow rate
1176 mL/min
renal plasma flow rate
(renal blood flow rate)(fraction of blood that is plasma)= 650 mL/min
filtration fraction
part of plasma that is filtered into lumen of bowman’s capsule (19%)
glomerular filtration rate
amount of filtrate produced each minute 180 L/day
average urine production/day
1-2 L (99% of filtrate is reabsorbed)
what is special about the filtration membrane?
has fenestrated endothelium prevents cells from entering the capillaries but some albumin and hormones enter the filtrate and are reabsorbed and metabolized by the PCT cells.
glomerular capillary pressure
blood pressure inside capillary pushes fluid out into bowman’s capsule
capsule hydrostatic pressure
pressure of filtrate already in lumen
blood colloid osmotic pressure
osmotic pressure caused by proteins in the blood (favors movement into capillary)
autoregulation of Glomerular filtration
increase in BP=constriction of afferent arterioles (less flow)
sympathetic stimulation:norepinephrine
constricts small arteries and afferent arterioles, decreases blood flow and filtrate formation, during shock or intense exercise- intense sympathetic stimulation decreases rate of filtrate formation
where does tubular reabsorption occur
proximal tubule, loop of henle, distal tubule, and collecting duct
where does passive transport occur in the kidney
thin segment of loop of henle
how do things get back into venous circulation
substances transported to interstitual fluid and reabsorbed into peritubular capillaries and venous system
what gets reabsorbed and secreted in proximal tubule
HCO3-, NaCl, H2O (passively) K+, other nutrients- reabsorbed
H+, NH3, secreeted
what gets reabsorbed in the descending loop of henle
water, solutes enter
what gets reabsorbed in the thin and thick segment of loop of henle
NaCl, K+
thin-passive
thick-active
what gets reabsorbed and secreted in the distal tubule
NaCl, H2O, HCO3- reabsorbed
K+, H+ secreted
what gets reabsorbed in the collecting duct
NaCl, urea, H2O
As the tubule goes deeper in the medulla, the osmolarity of interstitial fluid _____
increases
What happens in diabetes mellitus
concentration of glucose in filtrate exceeds rate of transported so it is excreted in urine
What happens in the loop of henle
descending- water moves out of nephron and solutes move in
ascending- solutes move out
what is usually secreted in the the tubule
metabolic byproducts, drugs, ammonia, H+,K+, penicillin
What mechanisms create urine of variable concentration
maintenance of high concentration of solutes in medulla, counter current flow, control of permeability of distal nephron to water
which part of the nephron is permeable to urea
descending loop of henle, collecting ducts
How does ADH work at the cellular level
Binds to a GPCR and a aquiporin-2 cytoplasmic vesicle moves to the plasma membrane. Increases permeability to water and increases reabsorption
what part of the nephron does ADH work in
distal tubules and collecting duct
How does aldosterone affect urine production
it increases Na+ reabsorption and decreases urine concentration and volume
what stimulates aldosterone (renal cortex)
angiotensin II (high K+ and low Na+
what stimulates angiotensin II
renin (kidney)
what does renin do
converts angiotensinogen to angiotensin I which gets converted to angiotensin II (vasoconstrictor and aldosterone stimualtor)
how does aldosterone work at the cellular level
aldosterone diffuses into the nucleus of the tubule cell. causes transcription/translation of Na+/K+/H+ transporters. more Na+ absorbed and more K+/H+ secreted
atrial natriuretic hormone
produced by right atrium of heart when blood volume increases, inhibits Na+ reabsorption, inhibits ADH, increases urine volume.
how does urine move through ureters
peristalsis
what does sympathetic stimulation do to afferent arteriole diameter?
decrease=decrease urine production
micturition reflex
stretch of urinary bladder, reflex that contracts the bladder and inhibits urinary sphincter
effect of aging on renal system
gradual decrease in size of kidney, blood flow, glomeruli, ability to concentrate urine, less responsive to ADH/aldosterone, reduced ability to participate in vit D synthesis
what is the intracellular cation
K+
what is the interstitial fluid cation
Na+
what is the plasma cation
Na+
intracellular anion
PO4-3
interstital fluid anion
Cl-
plasma anion
Cl-
three routes of water loss
urine, evaporation, feces
increased osmolarity causes ADH secretion or inhibits ADH secretion
increased ADH secretion
hypernatremia
elevated plasma Na+
hyponatremia
decreased Na+
what happends when extracellular calcium gets too high
prevents membrane depolarization
if pH increases what happens to H+ secretion
decreases
what are the four functions of reproductive system
produce gametes, fertilization, development, hormone production
two chambered sac that contains testes
scrotum
muscles which help regulate temperature of the testes
dartos and cremaster muscle
perineum
diamond shaped area between thighs- divided into urogenital triangles
thick white connective tissue covering testes
tunica albuginea
seminiferous tubules make what?
sperm
interstitial cells secrete what?
testosterone
how do testes descend
pass through abdominal wall guided by fibromuscular gubernaculum and through inguinal rings
cryptorchidism
failure of one or both of testes to descend into scrotum
what does FSH stimulate in males
sperm formation
what does LH stimulate in males
testosterone
what is the process male gametes undergo to become sperm
mitosis- spermatogonia- primary spermatocytes and daughter spermatogonia
meiosis 1- primary spermatocytes to secondary spermatocytes
meiosis 2- secondary spermatocytes to spermatids
spermatids develop acrosome and flagellum
sustenacular (sertoli, nurse) cells do what?
nourish sperm cells and form blood-testis barrier and produce hormones (testosterone to dihydrotestosterone and estrogen)
what are the efferent ductules in males
ducts that lead of of testis
what is epididymis
site of sperm cell maturation
what is ductus deferens or vas deferens
duct which passes from epididymis into abdominal cavity
ejaculatory duct
joins the ductus deferens and seminal vesicle. ends at urethra with prostate gland
corpose cavernosa
erectile tissue that is dorsal
corpus spongiosum
erectile tissue surrounding spongy urethra
glans penis
enlargement of corpus spongiosum
prepuce or foreskin
covers glans penis
what are the three parts of the urethra in mlaes
prostatic, membranous, spongy
seminal vesicles
high pH secretion that empties into ejaculatory duct and produces 60% of semen
prostate gland
thin milky secretion and high pH that contains clotting factors and fibrinolysis
bulbourethral gland
mucous secretion that helps neutralize pH of female vagina
emission
discharge of semen into prostatic urethra
ejaculation
expulsion of semen from urethra
what hormone is secreted before birth in males
Human chorionic gonadotropin hormone (HCG)- stimulates secretion of testosterone
during puberty, what hormone increases
gnRH- LH, FSH
what does testosterone do
enlargement and differentiation of male genitals/reproductive ducts, descent of testes, hair growth, rough skin, sebaceous gland secretion, increased metabolic rate, bone growth
effect of aging on male reproductive system
decrease in testes size, interstitial cells, thinning of seminiferous tubules, decreased rate of sperm cell production, decrease in blood flow to prostate
external female genitalia
vulva or pudendum
labia minora
forms borders on sides
hymen
covering of vaginal opening
what are the four parts of the uterus
body, isthmus, cervix, fundus
what are the three layers of the uterus
perimetrium-serous membrane, myometrium- smooth muscle, endometrium- mucous membrane
functional layer of uterus
innermost layer replaced every month
fimbriae
long thin processes that extend from infundibulum of uterine tubes
ampulla
widest part of uterine tube where fertilization takes place
what is the outermost covering of the ovary
ovarian (germinal) epithelium
oogenesis
production of secodnary oocyte in ovaries
what happens to oogonia before birth
cells which divide by mitosis to produce other oogonia and primary oocytes. primary oocyte stops in prophase of meiosis 1. gets surrounded by single layer of granulosa cells (primordial folicle)
how does the primary follicle develop
granulosa cells enlarge and increase in number
how does the secondary follicle develop
fluid filled vesicles develop and thecal cells arise on outside of follicle.
what is a mature follicle
vesicles surrounding the primary oocyte fuse to create a single antrum
when does the primary oocyte complete meiosis 1
right before ovulation- creates a secondary oocyte and polar body
how far does the secondary oocyte get in meiosis 2 before being released from ovary
metaphase II
when does the secondary oocyte complete meiosis 2
if it is fertilized by sperm cell.
what forms the corpus luteum and corpus albicans
granulosa cells
are polar bodies bigger or smaller than oocyte
smaller
when does fertilization begin
when a sperm cell binds the plasma membrane of a secondary oocyte and penetrates into the cytoplasm
when is there a zygote
after meiosis 2 is complete and the polar body is ejected
when does the corpus luteum persist
if fertilization occurs
menarche
first episode of menstrual bleeding
phases of menstrual cycle
menses, proliferation (follicular phase), and secretory (luteal phase)
amenorrhea
absense of menstrual cycle
menopause
cessation of menstrual cycle
what happens during the follicular phase of ovarian cycle
FSH from anterior pituitary stimulates development of an oocyte containing follicle which secretes estrogen and progesterone
what happens during the luteal phase of ovarian cycle
corpus luteum secretes progesterone and estrogen
what happens during the menstruation phase of uterine cycle
bleeding due to low levels of estrogen and progesterone in blood
what happens during proliferative phase of uterine cycle
endometrium thickens under influence of estrogen and ovulation occurs midcycle
what happens during secretory phase of uterine cycle
endometrium continues to thicken and becomes vascular under influence of progesterone
what happens during menopause
cessation of menstrual cycle for 12 months, follicles insensitive to LH and FSH, ovaries stop producing estrogen and progesterone, hot flashes, night sweats, fatigue, behavioral changes
effect of aging on female reproductive system
menopause, uterine position may lead to prolapse, uterus decreases in size, vaginal wall gets thinner, less elastic and increased risk for infection, increased risk for cancer
