immunology, respiratory, digestive, nutrition Flashcards
immunity
ability to resist damage from foreign substances
innate immunity
nonspecific immunity- there from birth (physical barriers, chemical mediators, and cell mediated)
adaptive immunity
specific immunity- changes over time (specificity, memory)
examples of physical barriers
skin, mucous membranes, cilia, coughing and sneezing
surface chemicals
lysozyme lyses cells, acid secretions prevent/kill microbes, mucus traps microbes
histamine
causes vasodilation, increased vascular permeability, gland secretions, smooth muscle contractions of airways, attracts eosinophils
kinin
cause vasodilation, increased vascular permeability, stimulates pain receptors, and attract neutrophils
interferons
interfere with virus production and infection
complement
increase vascular permeability, stimulate release of histamine, activate kinins, lyse cells, promote phagocytosis, and attract leukoocytes
prostaglandins
cause smooth muscle relaxation, vasodilation, increased vascular permeability and stimulates pain receptors
leukotrienes
prolonged smooth muscle contraction, increased vascular permeability, and attraction of leukocytes
pyrogens
stimulate fever
chemotaxis
movement toward the source of chemotactic factors
neutrophil
phagocytic and first cell to enter infected tissue. regularly cross gastrointestinal wall
macrophage
monocyte that leaves blood to phagocytize a cell
basophil and mast cell
promotes inflammation. basophils are motile, mast cells are not motile in connective tissue
eosinophils
reduce imflammation by breaking down chemicals. secrete enzymes that kill some parasites
natural killer cells
lyse tumor and virus infected cells
local inflammatory response
confined to a specific area of body. redness, heat, swelling, pain, loss of function
systemic inflammatory response
occurs in many parts of body but in addition to local, increase neutrophils, fever (pyrogens), widespread vascular permeability.
B cell
differentiates to become plasma cell or memory B cell
plasma cell
produces antibodies that are direct or indirectly responsible for destroying antigen
memory B cell
quick and effective response to an antigen that the body has seen before
cytotoxic T cell
destroying cells lb lysis or by producing cytokines
helper T cell
activates B cell and cytotoxic T cells
regulatory T cell
inhibits B cells, helper T cells, and cytotoxic T cells
memory T cells
quick and effective response to antigen which the imune system has previously reacted
dendritic cell
processes antigen and is involved in the activation of B and T cells
antigen
large foreign molecule such as bacteria, virus, or other compound
self-antigen
produced by body as a marker to allow adaptive immune response to differentiate from self and non self
haptens
small molecules, when combines with large proteins produce adaptive immune resposne
positive selection
ensures survival of lymphocytes that react against antigens (proliferate and form clones)
negative selection
getting rid of lymphocytes that react to self-antigen
tolerance
unresponsive lymphocyte to specific antigen
antigenic determinants
specific regions of a given antigen recognized by a lymphocyte
antigenic receptors
where lymphocyte binds with antigenic determinant
major histocompatibilities complex (MHC)
molecules attach to plasma membrane with a variable end that can bind to antigens
class 1 MHC
surface of nucleated cells that tells the immune cells to kill it.. MHC1 and foreign antigen are displayed together
class 2 MHC
found on antigen presenting cells that stimulates other immune system cells to respond to the antigen
how does a helper T cell proliferate
macrophage displaying MHC class II molecule and processed antigen bind to helper T cell to stimulate division
Proliferation of B cells
B cell first endocytosis a antigen and displays it with a MHC class II molecule on the surface of the cell. Helper T cell binds and stimulates proliferation
proliferation of cytotoxic T cells
target cell displays a MHC class 1 moelcule and processed antigen. T cell receptor binds complex. Costimulation by molecule produced by helper T cell
how do antibodies work
recognize a unique part of the foreign target (antigen). effective for extracellular agents.
IgM
activates complement and acts as antigen binding receptor on the surface of B cells. first antibody to respond to an antigen
IgG
most common antibody. activates complement, promotes phagocytosis, can cross placenta. measured as titer to specific disease
IgE
increased with allergies and parasites
IgA
secretory antibody- secreted into breast milk, saliva, tears, mucous membranes
IgD
aids in antigen binding receptors on B cells
actions of antibodies
inactivation, agglutination, activate the complement cascade, initiate release of inflammatory chemicals, facilitate phagocytosis
primary response to antibody
when B cell is first activated by antigen it proliferates to produce plasma cells and memory cells
secondary response
second or later exposure to antigen. memory cells ramp up to form plasma cells and more memory cells. faster response
what are the two functions of cytotoxic T cells
lyse cell, produce cytokines which promote phagocytosis and inflammation
active natural immunity
natural exposure to antigen
active artificial immunity
vaccination
passive natural immunity
transfer of antibodies from mother to fetus/baby
passive artificial immunity
antibodies are produced by another person or animal and injected
effects of aging on immune system
decreased helper T cell proliferation, decreased antibody response, ability to resist intracellular pathogens decreases, reactivation of pathogens
Functions of the respiratory system
gas exchange, regulation of pH, voice production, olfaction, protection
what structures make up the upper tract of the respiratory system
nose and pharynx
what structure make up the lower tract of the respiratory system
larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs
what is the anterior vestibule
structure with hairs just inside the nares designed to trap debris
what are the functions of the nasal cavity
passageway for air, cleans air, humidifies and warms air, smell, resonating chamber for speech
what are the three regions in the pharynx
nasopharynx, oropharynx, larygopharynx
what does the nasopharynx connect
nasal cavity with eustachian tubes
what are the three unpaired cartilages in the larynx
thyroid, cricoid, epiglottis
what are the three paired cartilages in the larynx
arytenoids, corniculate, cuneiform
vestibular folds are also known as….
false vocal cords
true vocal cords are located in the opening between the …
glottis
what are the functions of the larynx
maintains open passage for air, prevent swallowed material from entering deeper, sound production, pseudostratifued ciliated columnar tissue prevents debris movement
what does the trachea connect
larynx to primary bronchi
what is the path of air through the lungs
trachea, primary bronchi, secondary bronchi, tertiary bronchi, bronchioles, terminal bronchioles, respiratory bronchioles, alveoli
type 1 pneumocytes
gas exchange
type 2 pneumocytes
produce surfactant
dust cells
phagocytes
what are the layers of the respiratory membrane starting interior
thin layer of fluid lining alveolus, alveolar epithelium, basement membrane of alveolar epithelium, thin interstitial space, basement membrane of capillary epithelium, capillary epithelium
what is the difference between the left and right lung
left lung only has 2 lobes and cardiac fissure
when the diaphragm contracts does the body inhale or exhale?
inhale
when the diaphragm relaxes does the body inhale or exhale
exhale
which pleura adheres to the organ and the thoracic cell wall?
visceral pleura- lung
parietal pleura- thoracic wall
mediastinum
central region of thoracic cavity which contains heart
lung recoil is based on two factors:
elastic recoil and surface tension
surfactant
reduces tendency of lungs to collapse by reducing surface tension
respiratory distress syndrome (hyaline membrane disease)
not enough surfactant produced in infants
does negative or positive pressure cause alveoli to expand
negative. pressure is low enough to overcome lung recoil
what is pneumothorax
opening between pleural cavity and atmosphere means no pressure difference and no breathing
what does a large compliance mean?
easier for a change in pressure to cause expansion
what does a low compliance mean?
hard for a change in pressure to cause expansion (want it to be large)
spirometry
measures volumes of air that move into and out of respiratory system
tidal volume
amount of air inspired or expired with each breath
inspiratory reserve volume
volume that can be forcefully inspired after inspiration of tidal volume
expiratory reserve volume
volume that can be forcefully expired after expiration of tidal volume
residual volume
volume still remaining in the respiratory pasages and lungs after most forceful expiration
inspiratory capacity
tidal volume + inspiratory reserve volume
functional residual capacity
expiratory reserve volume + residual volume
vital capacity
inspiratory reserve volume + tidal volume + expiratory reserve volume
total lung capactiy
all of the lung volumes added together
what are the four factors diffusion of gasses depends on
membrane thickness, diffusion coefficient of the gas, surface area, partial pressure differences
shunted blood
blood that is not completely oxygenated
blood flow to and from alveoli
pulmonary arteries, pulmonary capillaries, pulmonary veins
what three ways is CO2 transported
bicarbonate ion, hemoglobin, dissolved in plasma
what brain structure generally regulates respiration
medulla, but higher brain centers, chemoreceptors, thermal, pain receptors can modify respiration
when pH decreases, does respiration increase or decrease?
increase
when pH increases, does respiration increase or decrease
decrease
effects on aging for respiratory sys
opposite of athletes. VC decreases, residual volume increases, decreased ability to remove mucus, decreased gas exchange
what does the alimentary tract refer to?
continuous tube that food travels through
GI tract is?
stomach and intestines
mastication
chewing
deglutition
swallowing
peristalsis
wave of circular smooth muscle relaxation and contraction propel bolus foward
what are the four layers of the digestive tract
mucosa, submucosa, muscularis, and serosa
what organs are retroperitoneal
duodenum, pancreas, ascending and decending colon
messentery
two layers of peritoneum with thin layer of CT between. routes vessels and nerves pass from body wall to organs
what are the two sets of teeth
primary and secondary
what are the 4 tyes of teeth
incisors, canines, premolars, molars
what is the clinical crown
section of tooth above gum line
what is enamel
outermost layer of anatomical crown, non living, protective
dentin
living, cellular, calcified tissue
pulp cavity
filled with blood vessels nerves and CT
periodontal ligaments
hold tooth in socket
gingiva
inbetween teeth dense fibrous CT covered by stratified squamous epithelium
what are the three salivary glands
parotid, submandibular, sublingual
what are the two sphincters in the stomach
cardiac, pyloric
chyme
ingested food and stomach secretions
pepsin
protein breakdown
phases of stomach secretions
cephalic (triggered by brain), gastric (triggered by gastric distension), intestinal (absence of material stops secretion)
what happens in the small intestine?
absorption of nutrients
what are the three divisions of the small intestine
duodenum, jejunum, ileum
how does the small intestine increase surface area
plicae circulares (circular folds), villi (folds in mucosa), microvilli (folds on each cell membrane), lacteals
goblet cells
produce protective mucus
endocrine cells
produce regulatory hormones
granular cells
protects from bacteria
peyer’s patches
lymphatic nodules
ileocecal junction
where ileum meets large intestine
what are the four parts of large intestine
cecum, colon, rectum, anal canal
what happens in the large intestine
absorption of water/salt and feces formation
what are the four portions of the colon
ascending, transverse, descending, sigmoid
haustra
pouches in large intestine
internal anal sphincter
made of smooth muscle
external anal sphincter
made of skeletal muscle
what are the functions of the liver
bile production, storage, detoxification, phagocytosis, synthesis
what are the four lobes of the liver
left, right, caudate, quardate
what does the porta on the liver contain
vessels, ducts, nerves
path of bile
hepatic duct, cystic duct, gallbladder, common bile duct, hepatopancreatic ampulla, duodenum
what is the portal triad
hepatic portal vein, hepatic artery, hepatic duct at each corner of a lobule
central vein
center of lobule which unites to form hepatic veins
hepatic cord
made of hepatocytes and radiates from central vein
bile canaliculus
between cells within cords
hepatic sinusoids
enlarged spaces filled with blood
gallbladder is stimulated by what?
cholecystokinin
what are gallstones
precipitated cholesterol
digestion
breaking down food molecules
absorption
molecules are moved out of digestive tract and into circulation
what do lipases do
break triglycerides down
lipoprotein
made of lipids and protein. lower density have higher amount of lipid and higher density have higher amount of protein
aging on the digestive system
decrease mucus layer, CT, muscles, and secretions, increased susceptibility to infections
difference between essential and nonessential nutrients
essential must be ingested cannot be made. nonessential can be made in body
examples of monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides
glucose, fructose, galactose
sucrose, maltose, lactose
starch, glycogen, cellulose
