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Zool 461 > Metabolism > Flashcards

Metabolism Flashcards

1
Q

Insulin is a —— hormone that causes a reduction in blood sugar. Clucogon is the oppsite and is a —– hormone

A
  • hypoglycemic
  • Hyperglycemic
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1
Q

Glucose is taken in gut to blood. Post meal glucose increase and brain can only use glucose for energy since it is

A

a fuel for ATP

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2
Q

In other tissues, they can use other stuff for ATP, not just glucose through —– which is —–

A

gluconeogenesis
production of carbs from non carbs

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3
Q

Glucose gets stored as a macromole —– in ——. For long term storage it is stored in —–

A
  • glycogen (polymer of glucose)
  • liver/muscle
  • adipose tissue/fat (packs in more energy per gram)
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4
Q

All steps in glycolysis is —–

A

reversible

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5
Q

Fat and and protein in Gluconeogensis (carbs from noncarbs) (3)

Fat (2) + enzymes, Protein

A
  • Fat can be broken down into trygylcerides and free fatty acids and enter glycolysis
  • Forms glycouse 6-phophate and by glucose 6-phosphatase to glucose
  • Protein can be made into glucose

Gluconeogenesis

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6
Q

glycogenolysis (2)

+ process

A
  • the process of breaking down glycogen into glucose to produce energy.
  • Glycolysis
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7
Q

gluconeogenesis (2)

+ process

A
  • a process transforming non-carbohydrate substrates into glucose. It is the synthesis of new glucose from non carbohydrate precursors providing glucose when dietary intake is lacking or is insufficient.
  • Glycogen synthesis for storage
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8
Q

Endocrine pancreas

Endocrine Pancreatic cells (2)

where + mass

A
  • The endocrine cells of the pancreas are contained in the pancreatic islets or islet of langerhans
  • Small number of cells that produce hormones (1-2% of the mass of the pancreas)
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9
Q

There are 3 cell types that produce hormones in the pancreas islet (3):

A
  • alpha cells that makes glucagon
  • beta cells that make insulin
  • delta cells for gastrin and somatostatin (blocks GH)

beta cells are the bulk

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10
Q

—– from the hypothalamus inhibits the pituitary gland’s secretion of growth hormone and thyroid stimulating hormone

A

Somatostatin

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11
Q

Insulin (6)

AA + released by + increases + cellular /adopise + muscle + fat + glycog

A
  • 51 amino acids
  • released by beta Islet of Langerhans cells: MAIN HYPOGLYCEMIC HORMONE
  • increases glucose transport into insulin sensitive cells (via GLUT4 transporters)
  • enhances cellular utilization and storage of glucose (enhances glucose oxidation in adipose tissue to produce ATP)
  • Increase AA transport, enhances utilization of amino acids (muscle synthesis)
  • Increase fat transport promotes fat synthesis (increase activity of lipoprotein lipases that ihibits fat oxidation/lipolysis)
  • increase glycogenesis storing excess glucose as glycogen (primarily in muscles: increase hepatic glucokinase activity to phosphorylate glucose into G6P, increase glycogen synthase activity)
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12
Q

Fastest way to eliminate glucose from blood is

A

transporting into cell

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13
Q

Glucagon (4)

Amino acid + released by + increas + Lipids?

A
  • 29 amino acids
  • released by alpha Islet of Langerhans cells:
    ONE OF THE HYPERGLYCEMIC ANTI-INSULIN HORMONES
  • increase glycogenolysis in liver
  • Increase gluconeogenesis ( increase AA mobilization from protein and deamination of AA in the liver to convert to carb.)
  • increase lipolysis (FFA can be converted to glucose by entering in citic acid cycle to G-6-P)
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14
Q

Insulin cannout cross

A

BBB

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15
Q

Type 1 Diabetes (2)

depend + what

A
  • insulin dependent
  • autoimmune disorder where the immune system destroys the beta cells of the pancreas
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16
Q

Type 2 diabetes

what

A
  • deficiency of insulin or reduced responsiveness of target cells due to some change in insulin receptors
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17
Q

which hormones oppose insulin action? (7)

A
  • glucagon (increases blood glucose levels, stimulated by catecholamines like NE)
  • cortisol (long-term control)
  • adrenaline (PNS)
  • GH (increases blood glucose to mobilize energy)
  • thyroid hormones (T3, T4)
  • PRL (pregnancy)
  • estrogen
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18
Q

what is secretion of insulin affected by (4)?

A
  • increased glucose (+)
  • increased amino acid (+)
  • GI hormones (gastrin, secretin, cholecytokinin) (+)
  • sympathetic activity (catecholamines like EP/NE inhibits)
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19
Q

Norepinephrine acts of adrenergic receptors which have 2 subtypes, what are the 2 subtypes and where are they found?

A

alpha sub-type: insulin-secreting beta pancreatic cells

beta sub-type: glucagon-secreting alpha pancreatic cells

20
Q

Inner part

what are the hormones produced by the adrenal medulla (4)?

by what + 3 types

A
  • chromaffin tissue secretes catecholamines:
  • epinephrine (E) or adrenaline
  • norepinerphine (NE) or noradrenaline
  • dopamine (DA)
21
Q

Outter part

what are the hormones produced by the adrenal cortex (2)?

specialized for + hormones (2)

A
  • Specialized for different steroid hormones
  • glucocorticoids (carb metabolism)
  • mineralocorticoids (osmo-regulation)
22
Q

Outline the synthesis of catecholamines

A
  1. Phenylalanine to tyrosine (phenylalanine hydroxylase)
  2. Tyrosine to dihydroxyphenylalanine DOPA (tyrosine hydroxylase - RATE LIMITING ENZYME)
  3. DOPA to dopamine (DOPA decarboxylase)
  4. Dopamine to norepinephrine (dopamine beta-hydroxylase)
  5. Norepinephrine to epinephrine (phenylethanolamine-N-methyltransferase, PNMT) Step mostly in adrenal due to PNMT

NE and Dopamine negative feedback to tyrosine hydroxylase

23
Q

what is the effect of epinephrine (4)?

A
  • increase circulating glucose level (acts on glycogen breaks down to release glucose)
  • increase cardiac output (increase heart rate and more O2)
  • elicits a redistribution of the blood supply (restriction to parts of body not involved in muscular activity skin/gut, skeletal muscle blood flow is increased)
  • stimulates pulmonary ventilation by dilation of bronchioles (areoli sacs)
24
Q

What is the effect of adrenaline (6):

A
  1. CAUSE HYPERGLYCEMIA:
  2. stimulation of hepatic glycogenolysis (liver breaks down glycogen into glucose)
  3. stimulation of hepatic gluconeogenesis
  4. inhibition of insulin release (alpha adrenergic receptor)
  5. stimulation of glucagon release (beta adrenergic receptor)
  6. stimulation of ACTH release (increases cortisol release by adrenal cortex)
25
Q

which hormone are alpha adrenergic receptors more sensitive to? and what are its effects?

A

NE
Increase in:
- gluconeogenesis
- dilation of pupils
- sweating
- GH secretion
- arterial constriction (renal/cutaneous)
- muscle contraction (gastrointestinal/urinary sphincters)

Decrease in:
- insulin secretion

26
Q

which hormone are beta adrenergic receptors more sensitive to? and what are its effects?

A

E
Increase in:
- glycogenolysis
- lipolysis
- arteriolar dilation
- cardiac contractility (B1 receptor)
- heart rate (B1)
- muscle relaxation (GI, bronchial, urinary) (B2)
- glucagon secretion
- thyroid hormone secretion
- renin secretion (B2)

Decrease in:
- glucose utilization (in select tissues)

27
Q

what are the effects of glucocorticoids (5)?

General sum + increase + liver + inhibit + muscle/lipid

A

increases glucose availability:

  • increase gluconeogensis
  • In liver cortisol stimulates conversion of Glucose to glycogen and it also cause lipolysis
  • inhibit uptake of glucose and amino acids by certain cells (includes adipose tissue)
  • catabolic effects in skeletal muscle and adipose tissue (allows for conversion by gluconeogenesis in liver)
28
Q

What is the hypoglycemic control of glucagon secretion (4)?

A
  1. Hypoglycemia causes low intracellular glucose concentration leading to a reduction in glycolysis-generated adenosine triphophate (ATP)
  2. Reduction in ATP-sensitive postasssium channel activity
  3. increase intracellular K+ causes depolarization of the cell membrane and activation of voltage-dependent CA2+ channel
  4. Increase influx of Ca2+ triggers the secretion of glucagon through exocytosis
29
Q

Process of insulin secretion:

A
  1. Glucose enters cells from pancrease via GLUT 2 channels
  2. Glucose is metabolized to produce ATP
  3. ATP binds to K+ channel and close them leading to depolarization
  4. Depolarization causes voltage Ca2+ gated channel to open
  5. Calcium enters cell causing exocytosis of insulin into blood
30
Q

alpha receptors and beta receptors in terms of alpha cells and beta cells in the pancreas

A
  • alpha receptors inhibits beta cells from secreting insulin
  • Beta receptors increase alpha cells in making glucagon
31
Q

Insulin structure (4)

A
  • 51 amino acids
  • consist of 2 chains A and B connected by S-S bonds
  • Synthesized as a single chain larger peptide (pro-insulin, 81 amino acids)
  • Part of the molecule C-peptide is removed during cellular processing
32
Q

Increase of glucose transport by insulin does not affect:

Instead it affects:

A
  • does not affect glucose transport in renal tubules, RBC, intestinal mucous, liver and brain
  • it affects glucose transport in muscle, heart and adipose cells
33
Q

Insulin increases the activity of —-, and decreases ——- and —–

A
  • lipoprotein lipase (inhibits fat oxidation)
  • fat oxidation and lipolysis
34
Q

In terms of protein, insulin increase —– and decrease —–

A
  • amino acid transport into fat cells and protein synthesis
  • decrease protein catabolism
35
Q

How does Glucagon increase glycogenolysis?

A

Glucagon and epinephrine act on G-protein coupled receptor Gs stimulates cAMP which phosphorlates cAMP-dependent protein kinases (PKA) which phosphorylates other enzymes like glycogen phosphorylase to break down glycogen to glucose for release out of cell

36
Q

Embryonically, chrommaffin cells:

A
  • are derived from the same origin as the brain tissue and contain the same enzyme that produce catecholamines
37
Q

Talk about the outer part of the medulla cortex components and what they do (4):

A
  • Has a capsule that surrounds the whole gland
  • The most outer zone: Zona glomerulosa produce corticolsertone and aldosterone a mineralocorticoid
  • Zona fasciculata: produces glucocorticoid known as cortisol
  • Zona reticularis: produce androgen a variant of androgen and cannot be made to testosterone
38
Q

Synthesis of catecholamines are in:

A

The brain and adrenal medulla

39
Q

PNMT

A

Expressed in humans in medulla not abundant in brain. In Medulla produces NE to E and secreted in blood. But in brain it stays mostly in NE because lack of this hormone.

40
Q

There are two types of ——- adrenergic receptors, alpha and beta which are present in —- pharmacologically different subgroups. The ligands are:

A
  • membrane associated G-protein coupled (Gs adenylcyclase, Gq and G11 which activates phospholipase)
  • a1/a2 and B1/B2
  • NE and E (activate both class but have different potencies)
41
Q

Anaphylactic shock (2)

what + treatment

A
  • allergic or conjestion of respiratory system
  • Injection of EN so they have more time due to action on ventilation
42
Q

Epinephrine also act on

A

sweat glands to increase sweating
Not thermoregulation related

43
Q

Most gluconeogenic pathways happens via —- receptors

A

alpha

44
Q

Talk about the primary controller of adrenal cortex:

A
  • Primary controller is ACTH
  • CRH produced in hypolthalamus (supraoptic, paraventicular in pusitile manner) released into anterior pituitary and acts on corticotropes to stimulate synthesis and release of ACTH
  • ACTH acts on adrenal cortex and stimulates production of cortisol predominatly (small amount of adolsterone produced)
  • Cortisol itself, the glucocortoid acts as a negative feedback to AP and hypothalamus
45
Q

Cortisol is a —– and —– hormones that increases —–

A
  • hyperglycemic and catabolic
  • fuel for metabolism (AA, lipids, glucose)
46
Q

Metabolic effects

Physiological effects of glucocorticoids (4):

A
  1. The metabolic activity of glucocorticoids results in avaliability of energy in a form of readily usable carbohydrate as it stimulates breakdown of proteins and fats and their conversion into carbohydrates (gluconeogenesis) muscle wasting
  2. In the liver, cortisol stimulates conversion of glucose to glycogen
  3. Glucocorticoids inhibits uptake of glucose, amino acid by certain cells including adipose tissue.
  4. In skeletal muscle and adipose tissue, glucocorticoids have catabolic effects: increase proteoloysis of muscle proteins and lipolysis of fat (inhibits lipogenesis) and increase free fatty acids and amino acids for gluconeogenesis in the liver
47
Q

—- is the main site of metabolism

A

Liver

Zool 461 (7 decks)

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