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Mind and BRAIN > Memory (L5) > Flashcards

Memory (L5) Flashcards

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1
Q

What is memory?

A

The process that allows us to record (encode), store, and later retrieve experiences and information.

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2
Q

Brain as computer? How are they similar:

A

The recording (encoding) system is similar to that of an input device.
The memory unit within a computer works the storage and retrieval aspect of the brain.

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3
Q

Three stages of memory

A
  1. Encoding
  2. Consolidation (long-term storage)
  3. Retrieval
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4
Q

Three main types of memory

A
  1. Sensory memory: immediate storage for information from senses
  2. Short-term or working memory: active temporary storage for ongoing task performance.
  3. Long-term memory: persistent storage lasting up to a lifetime.
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5
Q

Stages of (human) memory - theory

A
  • Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) proposed this three stage/component model of (human) memory:

Sensory input leads into sensory memory. Encoding/attention leads from sensory memory into working (short-term) memory (rehearsal also loops back into working memory). Encoding leads from working memory to long term memory, and retrieval leads from long term memory to working memory. This encoding/retrieval stage is part of storage/consolidation.
(THE PICTURE ON THE SLIDE WORKS BETTER TO UNDERSTAND THIS THEORY).

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6
Q

Sensory memory (+ two types of storage)

A

Briefly holds incoming sensory information

  • There is the iconic storage (<1 sec): visual information.
  • There is the echoic storage (several seconds): auditory information.
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7
Q

Short term memory

A

Short term (STM) or working memory holds a limited amount of information temporarily.

  • It is critical for ongoing processing of events
  • Lasts for 12-30 seconds but can be prolonged by rehearsal.
  • Capacity is limited (7, give or take 2, meaningful items), however items can be chunked (e.g., phone numbers).
  • This is the encoding/attention to working memory section of Atkinson’s theory.
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8
Q

Working memory model (+ 4 main aspects)

A

Alan Baddeley proposed that short term memory is an active process.
Four aspects of the model:

  1. Phonological loop
  2. Visuospatial sketchpad
  3. Episodic buffer
  4. Central executive
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9
Q

Phonological loop (working memory model) (4)

A
  • Stores mental representations of sounds
  • It maintains info via rehearsal.
  • Explains why long words are harder to memorise than short words.
  • A loop in seconds rather than items.
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10
Q

Visuospatial sketchpad (working memory model)

A

Stores visual and spatial information.

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11
Q

Episodic buffer (working memory model)

A
  • Integrates and manipulates information from the phonological and visuospatial sketchpad.
  • Words are chunked into meaningful phrases.
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12
Q

Central executive (working memory model)

A
  • Directs overall action, controls the focus of attention, and integrates information in the episodic buffer.
  • Is at the head of each other section.
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13
Q

Long term memory (2)

A
  • LTM can persist for much longer periods, often for life.
  • LTM must consolidate to persist for this long (this is the storage/consolidate aspect of Atkinson’s theory).
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14
Q

Primacy and recency effects

A
  • Information in the STM decays rapidly unless it is rehearsed.
  • Rehearsal is likely important for STM to become consolidated into LTM.
  • The distinction between STM and LTM can be observed in primacy and recency effects.
  • PRIMACY reflect LTM while RECENCY reflects STM.
  • The recency effect can be eliminated by introducing a delay before asking the participant to recall the items.
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15
Q

Long term memory types (2)

A
  1. Declarative memory (factual information)
  • Semantic memory (general knowledge) e.g., Paris is the capital of France.
  • Episodic memory (personal episode) e.g., We ate tacos yesterday.
  1. Procedural memory (skills and habits) e.g., tying a knot, riding a bike.
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16
Q

Memory formation & types of encoding

A

Levels of processing: deeper processing leads to better retrieval.

  • Structural encoding
  • Phonological encoding
  • Semantic encoding
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17
Q

Structural encoding

A
  • Shallow
  • General features of a stimulus
    POTATO: is the word in capital letters?
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18
Q

Phonological encoding

A
  • Deeper
  • Specific (linguistic) features of an object
    HORSE: does this word rhyme with ‘course’?
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19
Q

Semantic encoding

A
  • Deepest
  • Remembering what the stimulus means
    TABLE: does this word fit in the sentence “the man peeled the ____”?
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20
Q

Types of rehearsal (2)

A
  1. Maintenance rehearsal
  2. Elaborative rehearsal
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21
Q

Maintenance rehearsal

A
  • Rote memorisation of information
  • Uses structural or phonological encoding
22
Q

Elaborative rehearsal

A
  • Professional actors do not simply memorise their lines, but typically first imagine themselves being the person whose role they are playing.
  • This allows them to attach meaning to the lines and behaviours.
  • Uses semantic encoding.
23
Q

Associative network

A
  • Each concept is represented by a node
  • Lines represent associations between concepts.
  • Shorter lines indicate stronger associations.
  • Activation of one node/network leads to spreading activation of related concepts.
  • Neighbouring nodes are likely controlled by topdown modulation.
  • This guides how we actively sample our environments by integrating information from STM and LTM
  • Consistently being updated in response to internal cognition and new experiences.
24
Q

Semantic memory

A

Can be represented as similar concepts
Red + Truck –> fire truck

25
Q

Episodic memory

A

Can be represented as a sequence of events
Key in ignition –> start car –> drive to AH –> buy food.

26
Q

What can associative networks lead to? (3)

A
  1. Misinformation effect
  2. Source confusion
  3. False testimony or confessions
27
Q

Misinformation effect

A

Post-event experiences altering episodic memory.

28
Q

Source confusion

A

Recognising something without knowing where we encountered it.

29
Q

False testimony or confessions

A

People can be convinced something is true based upon altered memory for it.

30
Q

Retrieval cue

A

A stimulus, whether internal or external, that activates information stored in long-term memory.

31
Q

How does associative network work?

A

Activation begins with a (set of) internal or external cue(s), and cascades through the network. The more cues the stronger the activation of associated nodes.

32
Q

Memory retrieval (general). What is it enhanced by? What areas of the brain are important?

A
  • Retrieval is enhanced by a similar context to that where encoding occurred.
  • Retrieval is also enhanced by a similar state or mood to that where encoding occurred.
  • Memories of events or concepts that are more arousing, emotional, stressful, are better recalled.
  • Adaptive value
  • Pontine brainstem regions and amygdala are important for this.
33
Q

Why do we forget? (4)

A
  1. Encoding failure
  2. Decay
  3. Motivated
  4. Inference
34
Q

Encoding failure (forgetting)

A

Much of what we sense simply is not processed deeply enough to commit to memory.

35
Q

Decay (forgetting)

A

One theory proposes that physical memory traces reduce with time (e.g., associative links).

36
Q

Motivated (forgetting)

A

Conscious or unconscious repression of memories.

37
Q

Inference (forgetting) + types

A
  • New memories can obscure/alter older ones.
  1. Proactive: previous memories interfere with encoding/consolidation of new ones.
  2. Retroactive: new memories interfere with retrieval of older ones.
38
Q

Memory disorders (3)

A
  1. Amnesia
  2. Post traumatic stress disorder
  3. Dementia
39
Q

What is amnesia and what is it caused by (4)?

A

Amnesia refers to a loss of, or inability to form, long-term memories.
Amnesia can be caused by:

  • Trauma (blunt force)
  • Disease (stroke, tumours)
  • Surgery (for epilepsy)
  • Dementia, etc.
40
Q

What are the types of amnesia (2)?

A

Retrograde amnesia

  • Previously consolidated memories can no longer be retrieved.

Anterograde amnesia

  • New memories cannot be formed or consolidated.
41
Q

What is post traumatic stress disorder?

A

PTSD is persistent, recurrent memory for traumatic events, leading to chronic stress and anxiety.
Memory consolidation is a cyclical process - meaning it is repeatedly being encoded and retrieved. This process can be amplify the emotional response, and as a result these memories are difficult to suppress.

42
Q

What can PTSD be treated by? (3)

A
  1. Drugs that reduce anxiety (anxiolytics).
  2. Behavioural-cognitive therapy: recalling traumatic events and gradually reducing the experience emotional response with the guidance of a therapist.
  3. A combination of these.
43
Q

What is dementia and what aspects of the brain are effected?

A

Dementia is the (usually age related) progressive decline in cognitive ability.

  • Particularly in the Alzheimer’s type dementia, this decline often begins with a loss in the ability to retrieve LTM.
  • Alzheimers pathology starts in the pontine brainstem, proceeds to hippocampus, and gradually to the rest of cortex.
44
Q

Important brain regions for the formation of memory (6)

A
  1. Prefrontal cortex
  2. Frontal cortex
  3. Thalamus
  4. Cerebellum
  5. Hippocampus
  6. Amygdala
45
Q

Brain regions for sensory and working memory

A
  • Processed in the sensory areas of the cerebral cortex.
  • Activates a network of cortical areas located across different lobes of the brain.
  • Prefrontal cortex plays a key role.
46
Q

Important brain regions for long term memory

A
  • Hippocampus and surrounding areas are critical for consolidation of declarative LTM (semantic, episodic).
47
Q

Patient HM

A

Hippocampus removed bilaterally that resulted in complete anterograde amnesia but little to no retrograde amnesia.
He also had intact procedural memory.

48
Q

Long term plasticity

A

The neuronal basis of memory formation is likely through a mechanism called long-term plasticity.
This lasting change in the sensitivity of a neuron to inputs that cause it to fire action potentials.

  1. Long term potentiation
  2. Long term depression
  • Established by Eric Kandel. Existing axons form new synapses with the postsynpatic cell. New axons are also produced by the presynaptic cell.
49
Q

Long term potentiation

A

Increased sensitivity (responds more readily to the input).

  • Long term potentiation can be produced by strongly stimulating the presynaptic neuron and recoding action potentials from the postsynaptic one before and after this stimulation.
  • The amplitude of the excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP) is increased following the stimulation.
50
Q

Long term depression

A

Decreased sensitivity (requires more input to fire).

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