Memory and Cognition Flashcards
The persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage and retrieval of information
Memory
the processing of information into the memory systems – for example, by extracting meaning.
Encoding
the process of retaining encoded information over time.
storage
the process of getting information out of memory storage.
retrieval
the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain’s natural mode of information processing for many functions. Contrasts with the step-by-step (serial) processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving.
parallel processing
the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system.
sensory memory
activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing before the information is stored or forgotten.
short-term memory
the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.
long-term memory
a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory.
working memory
memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and “declare.” (Also called declarative memory)
explicit memory
encoding that requires attention and conscious effort.
effortful processing
unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings.
automatic processing
retention independent of conscious recollection. (Also called nondeclarative memory)
implicit memory
a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second.
iconic memory
a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds.
echoic memory
organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically.
chunking
memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices.
mnemonics
the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice.
spacing effect
enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading information. Also sometimes referred to as a retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced learning.
testing effect
encoding on a basic level based on the structure or appearance of words.
shallow processing
encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention.
deep processing
a neural center that is located in the limbic system; helps process explicit memories for storage.
hippocampus
a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event.
flashbulb memory
an increase in a cell’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory.
long-term potential (LTP)
a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learning earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test.
recall
a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test.
recognition
a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material again.
relearning
the activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory.
priming
the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current good or bad mood.
mood congruent memory
our tendency to recall best the last (a recency effect) and first items (a primacy effect) in a list.
serial position effect
an inability to form new memories.
anterograde amnesia
an inability to retrieve information from one’s past.
retrograde amnesia
the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information.
proactive interference
the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information.
retroactive interference
in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories.
repression
incorporating misleading information into one’s memory of an event.
misinformation effect
attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined. (Also called source misattribution.) …, along with the misinformation effect, is at the heart of many false memories.
source amnesia
that eerie sense that “I’ve experienced this before.” Cues from the current situation may unconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience.
deja vu
the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.
cognition
a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people.
concept
a mental image or best example of a category. Matching new items to a … provides a quick and easy method for sorting items into categories (as when comparing feathered creatures to a prototypical bird, such as a robin).
prototype
the ability to produce novel and valuable ideas.
creativity
narrows the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution.
convergent thinking
expands the number of possible problem solutions (creativity thinking that diverges in different directions).
divergent thinking
a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem. Contrasts with the usually speedier – but also more error-prone – use of heuristics.
algorithm
a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone than algorithms.
heuristics
a sudden realization of a problem’s solution; contrasts with strategy-based solutions.
insight
a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence.
confirmation bias
a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past.
mental set
an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning.
intuition
judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information.
Representativeness Heuristic
estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common
Availability Heuristic
the tendency to be more confident than correct – to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments.
overconfidence
clinging to one’s initial conceptions after the basis on which they are formed has been discredited.
Belief Perseverence
the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgements.
framing
our spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning.
language
in language, the smallest distinctive sound unit.
Phoneme
in a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or a part of a word (such as a prefix).
morpheme
in a language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others. In a given language, semantics is the set of rules for deriving meaning from sounds, and syntax is the set of rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences.
grammar
beginning at about 4 months, the stage of speech development in which the infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to the household language.
babbling stage
the stage in speech development, from about age 1 to 2, during which a child speaks mostly in single words.
one-word stage
beginning about age 2, the stage in speech development during which a child speaks mostly two-word statements.
two-word stage
early speech state in which a child speaks like a telegram – “go car” – using mostly nouns and verbs.
telegraphic speech
impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca’s area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke’s area (impairing understanding).
aphasia
controls language expression – an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech.
broca’s area
controls language reception – a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe.
Wernicke’s area
Whorf’s hypothesis that language determines the way we think.
Linguistic Determinism
get information in, retain information, take information out
encoding, storage, and retrieval
rejected behaviorist explanations of all behavior (language)
He believed language users followed rules. Key to understanding language was mental processes and cognitive structures
Noam Chomsky (Cognitive Revolution (1960s-70s))
sensory, short, and long-term memory
Atkinson and Shiffrin’s Standard Theory Model - 3 levels of memory
explicit and implicit processes
Dual-track memory
in addition to chunking and mnemonics individuals also process information into…
hierarchies
plays a key role in forming and storing memories created by classical conditioning.
cerebellum
deep brain structures involved in motor movement that facilitate formation of procedural memories for skills (implicit memories)
basal ganglia
two limbic-system, emotion-processing clusters. Emotions can determine how a memory is stored
-Stressful situations
-Serotonin inducing situations
(emotions)
amygdala
first identified by German neurologist first described by senile plaque (build of protein which causes neurons to die). Type of dementia where patients lack acetylcholine. Definitive diagnosis is during the autopsy
alzheimers
related to alcohol consumption and a lack of thiamine
Confabulation - patients make up info to fill memory gaps. Smaller hippocampi than most. Affects the cardiovascular and central nervous system
korsakofs
Relearning task - rationale was that he wanted to study the properties of memory and forgetting, the fundamentals
Hermann Ebbinghaus
a useful prompt or reminder for the information to be retrieved
retrieval cue
influence of surrounding information and your own knowledge
(ducking don’t like you)
context dependent memory
the level of collect recall on the final items of the originally presented list
recency effect
when the information in a list is unique or strange
von restorff effect
loss from memory. Simply refer to situations in which there is a difficulty remembering due to various reasons. Not complete loss of memory
forgetting
loss of memory or memory abilities caused by brain damage or disease. Sometimes temporary due to a strong blow to the head or acute emotional or physical distress. Some are relatively permanent
amnesia
when individuals momentarily unable to recall some shred of information, often a person’s name, that they know is stored in long term memory
tip of tongue phenomenon (TOT)
how to improve memory
Rehearse repeatedly
Make the material meaningful
Activate retrieval cues
Use mnemonic devices
Minimize interference
Sleep more
Test your knowledge, both to rehearse it and to find out what you do not know
the scientific study of thought, language, the brain-in short, the scientific study of the mind
cognitive science
all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating
cognition
Robert Sternberg’s 5 components of creativity
Expertise - well-developed base of knowledge
Imaginative thinking skills - provide the ability to see things in novel ways
Venturesome personality - seeks new experiences
Intrinsic motivation - is being driven more by interest, satisfaction, and challenge
A creative environment - sparks, supports, and refines creative ideas
is the set of rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences (the arrangement of words).
syntax
language development (four stages)
Babbling stage - abt 4 months - utters various sounds at first unrelated to the household language
One-word stage - age 1-2
Two-word stage - age 2
Telegraphic speech - early speech stage mostly nouns and verbs
a form of aphasia in which the person knows what they want to say but is unable to produce the words or sentence
Broca’s Aphasia
word salad - a language disorder that makes it hard for you to understand words and communicate
Wernicke’s Aphasia
An organizing issue in studies of cultural influences on language and thought is how one’s language affects one’s thinking.
Whorfian hypothesis/linguistic relativity hypothesis
In the strongest version, the hypothesis claims that language controls both thought and perception to large degree, that is, you cannot think about ideas or concepts that your language does not name
strongest version of whorf
In its weaker version, the hypothesis claims that your language influences and shapes your thought, for instance making it merely more difficult rather than impossible to think about ideas without having a name for them
weaker version of whorf
