memory

Question 1

explain and evaluate coding.

Answer 1

explain:
-coding is acoustic STM and semantic in LTM.
evaluate:
-artificial stimuli = word list had no personal meaning.

Question 2

explain and evaluate capacity.

Answer 2

explain:

• digit span (Jacobs): 9.3 digits, 7.3 letters
• span of memory and chunking: (Miller) 7 (plus or minus 2) putting items together extends STM capacity
  evaluate:
• lacks validity = could be distracting extraneous variables
• not so many chunks = Cowan suggested 4 chunks in STM

Question 3

explain research on duration.

Answer 3

• STM = Peterson and Peterson = up to 18 seconds without rehearsal.
• LTM = Bahrick et. al. yearbooks: recognition 90%, recall 60%, recognition dropped to 70% after 48 years.

Question 4

evaluate research on duration.

Answer 4

• meaningless stimuli (STM) = used consonant syllables
• high external validity (LTM) = meaningful stimuli, greater recall with meaningful stimuli (Shephard).
• Peterson and Peterson may have been displacement not decay.

Question 5

what are the three functions in the multi-store model?

Answer 5

• sensory register = iconic and echoic sounds with a very brief duration, high capacity. transferred by attention.
• short term memory = limited capacity and duration, mainly acoustic coding, transferred to LTM through rehearsal.
• long term memory = unlimited capacity and duration, mainly semantic. created through maintenance rehearsal.

Question 6

evaluate the multi-store model.

Answer 6

• supporting research evidence = studies into coding, capacity and duration demonstrates differences between STM and LTM.
• more than one type of STM = studies of amnesia (e.g. KF) show different STMs for visual and auditory information.
• more than one type of rehearsal = elaborative rehearsal necessary for TRANSFER to LTM, not maintenance rehearsal.

Question 7

what are the three types of long term memory?

Answer 7

• episodic memory = memory for our life events i.e. a wedding.
• semantic memory = knowledge of the world i.e. language.
• procedural memory = memory of skills and automatic behaviour i.e. riding a bike.

Question 8

evaluate the three types of long term memory.

Answer 8

• clinical evidence = clive wearing and HM had damaged episode memories, but their other memories were intact.
• neuroimaging evidence = episodic and procedural memories recalled in different parts of the prefrontal cortex.
• real-life applications = training programme for adults with mild cognitive impairments.

Question 9

what are the four parts of the working memory model?

Answer 9

• central executive = coordinates slave systems and allocates resources, very limited resources.
• phonological loop = processes auditory information (phonological store and articulatory process. (maintenance rehearsal).
• visuospatial sketchpad = visual info: visual cache (store), inner scribe (spatial arrangement).
• episodic buffer = integrates the processing of slave systems and records order of events. (linked to LTM)

Question 10

evaluate the working memory model.

Answer 10

• clinical evidence = KF has poor auditory memory but good visual memory (damaged PL but working VSS).
• dual-task performance = difficult to do two visual tasks, but one visual one auditory fine (Baddeley).
• lack of clarity over the CE = not yet fully explained, probably has different components.

Question 11

what are types of interference (explanations for forgetting)?

Answer 11

pro-active interference = old memories disrupt new ones.

retro-active = new memories disrupt old ones.

Question 12

what are the effects of similarity (explanations for forgetting)?

Answer 12

McGeoch and McDonald = similar words created more interference.

Question 13

evaluate explanations for forgetting (interference).

Answer 13

• evidence from lab studies = well-controlled studies show interference effects.
• artificial materials = the list of words aren’t like everyday memories.
• real-life studies = Baddeley and Hitch = rugby players supported interference.

Question 14

what are the explanations for retrieval failure (explanations for forgetting)?

Answer 14

• encoding specificity principle = Tuvling: cues most effective if present at coding and retrieval.
• context-dependent forgetting = Godden and Baddeley (deep-sea divers): recall much better when external context match.
• state-dependent forgetting = Carter and Cassaday (anti-histamine): recall matched when internal states matched.

Question 15

evaluate retrieval failure (explanations for forgetting).

Answer 15

• supporting evidence = wide range i.e. Eysenck claims retrieval failure is the most important reason for LTM forgetting.
• questioning context effects = no forgetting unless contexts are very different e.g. on land versus underwater (Baddeley).
• recall versus recognition = absence of cues affects recall but not recognition.

Question 16

what is misleading information (eyewitness testimony)?

Answer 16

• leading questions = Loftus and Palmer (car speed): estimates affected by leading questions (smashed versus contacted).
• why do leading questions affect EWT:
• • response bias = no change to memory
• -substitution explanation supported by Loftus and Palmer and report of the presence of glass.
• post-event discussion = discussions with others contaminate eyewitness testimonies.

Question 17

evaluate misleading information (eyewitness testimony).

Answer 17

• useful real-life applications = could help prevent miscarriages of justice and change police interviewing.
• artificial tasks = watching film clips ignore stress and anxiety associated with a real-life accident/crime.
• individual differences = older people may be less accurate because of own-age bias.

Question 18

how does anxiety affect eye-witness testimonies?

Answer 18

• negative effect on recall = Johnson and Scott (weapon focus): high anxiety knife condition led to less good recall (tunnel theory of memory).
• anxiety has a positive effect on recall = Yuille and Cutshall (shooting): high anxiety associated with better recall when witnessing a real crime.
• explaining contradictory findings = Yerkes-Dodson law suggests both low and high anxiety leads to poor recall.

Question 19

evaluate effects of anxiety on eye-witness testimonies.

Answer 19

• weapon focus effect may not be relevant = Pickel used raw chicken, and the shock of the object increased anxiety levels.
• field studies lack control = researchers can’t control witnesses in between crime and interview.
• ethical issues = creating anxiety in a lab may cause psychological harm.

Question 20

list the five steps in the cognitive interview.

Answer 20

• report everything
• reinstate context (context-dependent forgetting, picture the scene).
• reverse the order (work from end to start, disrupts expectations).
• change perspective (disrupts schema).
• enhanced cognitive interview (social dynamics i.e. establishing eye contact).

Question 21

evaluate the cognitive interview.

Answer 21

• ci is time-consuming = takes longer and special training required.
• some elements may be more valuable than others = “report everything” and “reinstate the context” used together produce the best recall.
• supports the effectiveness of eci = produces more accurate recall than a standard interview.