Memory Flashcards
(A01)
What is capacity, coding and duration
Capacity = maximum amount of information that can be retained Duration = how long a memory ‘trace’ can be held for before it is forgotten Coding = visual (images), acoustic (sound), semantic (meaning)
(A01)
What is the capacity of LTM and STM
Miller
Reviewed existing research into stm and concluded:
Capacity of stm = 7 +- 2
Capacity of ltm = unlimited
The magic number 7
Chunking = increasing stm by grouping information into larger units
(A01)
What is the duration of stm
Peterson and Peterson
Lab experiments of 24 psychology experiments
Asked to recall triagrams and count back to prevent rehearsal
Found that the mover the interval the less accurate the recall
STM’s duration is approximately = 18-30 sec
(A01)
What is the duration of ltm
Bahrick 392 America university graduates Shown pictures from their yearbook and asked to match the pictures with the names After 14 years = 90% correct recall After 47 years = 60% correct recall Duration of ltm = lifetime
(A01)
What is the coding of ltm and stm
Baddley
List of words
Acoustically similar or dissimilar
Semantically similar or dissimilar
(A01)
Capacity, duration and coding of ltm and stm
Capacity stm = Miller, 7+-2 Capacity ltm = Miller, unlimited Coding stm = Baddley, acoustic Coding ltm = Baddley, semantic Duration stm = Peterson and Peterson, 18-30 sec Duration ltm = bahrick, a lifetime
(A03)
Capacity of stm and ltm
Cowan concluded only 4 items could be held
Suggesting Miller overestimated and his results could be flawed
Miller didn’t appreciate other factors affect capacity
Jacob found capacity of stm improved with age
People who are older are able to use chunking
(A03)
Duration of stm
Lacks ecological validity
People in normal day to day life aren’t asked to recall triagrams
The brain feels pressured to remember
(A03)
Duration of ltm
Lacks population validity
A small and specific sample size used
Unable to generalise the results
(A03)
Coding of ltm and stm
Lacks ecological validity In a lab setting Can’t generalise to real life May not have tested ltm and the delayed recall wasn’t long enough to be classed and long term memory Not a true representation
(A01)
What are the components of the multistore model of memory in orde
Environmental stimuli Sensory register - decay Attention Stm -maintenance rehearsal - forgetting Rehearsal Ltm Retrieval
(A01)
The multistore model of memory
Atkinson and Shiffrin Suggested 3 permanent stores for me money - sensory register - stm - ltm
(A03)
What is research evidence for the multistore model of memory
Glanzer and Cunitz asked people to recall 20 words
People mostly remember the first and last few
Proves ltm and stm and 2 separate stores
As the first words were rehearsal and the last were in the stm
However this lacks ecological validity
(A03)
What is the supporting case study for the multistore model of memory
HM’s removal of his hippocampus
He could form new arms but not ltm a not could he remember ltm memories
Stm couldn’t be transferred to ltm as the brain was damaged
However can’t generalise as the brain was previously damaged
(A03)
How does the levels of processing affect the multistore model of memory
Craig and Lockhart
Suggested memory is a byproduct and we remember due to how deep we process
The multistore model doesn’t consider depths of processing
(A01)
What are the components for the working memory model
Central executive -Visio-spatial sketchpad, episodic buffer, phonological loop Phonological Loop - articulatory control system - phonological store Ltm
(A01)
The working memory model
Baddley and Hitch 3 stores - Visio-spatial sketchpad - episodic buffet - phonological Koop Each has different coding and capacity
(A01)
What are the functions of the central executive
Receive information from the visio-spatial sketch pad, phonological loop, episodic buffet and ltm
Sifted and combined for reasoning and decisions
Capacity = limited
Coding = modality free (not limited to visual, acoustic or semantic)
(A01)
What are the functions of the phonological loop
Deals with auditory information
Preserves word order
Holds and rehearses words
Phonological store = holds words that are heard for 1-2 seconds
Articulatory process = rehearsal and stores verbal information
Capacity = limited, 2 seconds worth
Coding = acoustic
(A01)
What are the functions of the Visio-spatial sketch pad
Spatial information is stored Visio = what things look like Spatial = relationship between things (inner scribe) Capacity = 3-4 subjects Coding = visual
(A01)
What are the functions of the episodic buffer
Added in 2000 acts as a backup communicating with ltm
Capacity = 4 chunks
Coding = modality free
(A01)
What is dual task performance in the working memory model
Baddley and Hitch
If you do 2 visual things at the same time, you perform worse than if you would do them separately
If you do 1 visual and 1 acoustic at the same time there is no interference
(A03)
What is the supporting evident from dual task performance for the working memory model
Task 1 = use a pointer to track light moving around a screen
Task 2 = move around the edges of the letter F
Participants able to do both separately but not together
Supports that the working memory model is split into 2 stores
(A03)
What effect does ecological validity have on the dual task performance in the working memory model
The dual task performance lacks ecological validity as it is in a lab setting and are not asked to do that on a daily basics
(A03)
What are some real world applications on the working memory model
Listening to music whilst doing homework
Listening to the radio whilst watching tv
(A03)
What effect of lack of evidence for the central executive have on the working memory model
There is insufficient evidence that all of the components exist
Reduced credibility for the working memory model
(A01)
What are the types of long term memory
Procedural
Declarative
- semantic
- episodic
(A01)
What is procedural memories
A memory store for how you do things
E.g : drive, walk, write, talk
Recalled without conscious effort, automatic
Allows individuals to focus on other tasks
(A01)
What is declarative memories
Split into episodic and semantic
Episodic
- personal memories either autobiographical or experimental
- made up of time, context and emotions
- requires conscious effort
Semantic
-knowledge of facts, concepts and meanings
-known by everyone
-don’t remember time and place memory was formed
(A03)
What is supporting evidence for types of long term memory
MRI’s show different parts of when the brain is used and when different types of memories are enabled
Semantic = temporal lobe
Procedural = cerebellum, basal ganglia
Episodic = hippocampus
(A03)
What is a supporting case study for types of long term memory
Removal of HM’s hippocampus = couldn’t for new ltm memories (episodic/semantic)
Could form be procedural memories
Support the different types of ltm memories
(A01)
What did muller and Pilzeker identify about the interference theory
First to identify the interference effect
Participants were given a list of nonsense syllables
Then asked to look at paintings
The remembered less if they were asked to look at the painting whilst recalling the nonsense syllables
(A01)
What is retroactive interference
When new information interferes with this old
Therefore we forget old information
(A01)
What is proactive interference
When previously learned information interfaces with the new
Therefore we forget new information
(A01)
What did mcgeoh and McDonald suggest about interface
Interference is stronger when items are similar Participants were given 10 adjectives Then given a list of either - a synonym word list - nonsense syllables - numbers Found correct recall - a = 12% - b = 26% - c = 37%
(A03)
What did Kane and Eagle suggest about working memory spans
Suggested that individuals with greater working memory spans are less susceptible to proactive interference
Gave 3 word lists to learn
However it doesn’t consider individual differences suggesting there are other factories that affect why people forget
(A03)
What are the effects of lab experiment studies in interference theory
Most supporting studies derive from lab experiments
Lacks ecological validity
However variables are controlled making it easy to replicate and generalise
(A03)
Why can’t interference theory be generalised to everyday life
Everyday memories are mostly similar
(A03)
What is a supporting evidence from danaher Et al in interference theory
Recalls and recognition of an advertiser message was impaired when exposed to 2 different adverts for competing brands in a week
(A01)
What are insufficient cues
The reason we forget is due to insufficient cues
When we encode memories we store information that occurred around it
If these cues aren’t present it is difficult to retrieve memories
We haven’t forgotten the information, the cues help access the memory
(A01)
What is state dependant forgetting
Forgetting when we aren’t in the same emotional or internal state when we learnt the information
No internal cues
(A01)
What is context dependant forgetting
Occurs because we aren’t in the same environment form when we learnt the information
No external cues
(A01)
What did Godden and Baddley explain about retrieval failure
Asked people to remember words on land or under water
Less likely to forget when environment is the same
(A01)
What did Goodwin et al explain about retrieval failure
Asked people to remember a list of words either drunk or sober
Less likely to forget when emotional state is the same
(A03)
What is the real life explanation for retrieval failure
Learning in a classroom and taking the exam in the hall More likely to forget in the exam hall then the class Can be repeated for generalised results
(A03)
What is supporting evidence from carter and Cassidy for retrieval failure
Asked people to recall information when on drugs or no surfs
When mismatch between internal state, recall was worse
(A03)
Why were the results of the studies for retrival failure degrades
Lacked ecological validity as tasks not done in day to day life
(A03)
What is the effect of an alternative theory for retrieval failure
Retrieval failure = limited and only focuses on cues, not weather information is new or old
(A01)
What was the first study loftus and planers study for misleading information
Aim = investigate effects into leading questions on accuracy of eye witness testimony
45 American students in 5 groups of 9 individuals
Watched a video of a car crash and asked questions about the speed of the car
However they manipulated the verbs
- smash (40), collide (39), bump (38), hit (34), intact (31)
Leading questions effect ewt
(A01)
What was the second loftus and Palmer study for misleading information
150 participants in 3 conditions
- smash, hit and lost control
Showed a car accident video with no glass shatters and asked the week after if the saw any glass when the car smashed, hit, lost control
More people said yes when the car was smashed
(A03)
What is the supporting study of brown et al
College student who previously visited Disney land were asked to evaluate material about Disneyland
The Info was imbedded with misleading information about bugs bunny (not Disney) and Ariel (too old for the participants childhood)
Participants were asked if they met bugs bunny or Ariel in Disneyland
The people with the misleading info answered yes
The people with no misleading information answered no
Misleading information changes memories
(A03)
What was the effect of not all researchers agree with lab experiments in misleading information
Foster et al set up a ‘real’ crime and asked to identify the criminal which most people identified correctly
Yuille and Cutshall got 13 witnesses of a real life bank robbery and they gave accurate recall 4 months after the original statement
Suggest real life gives accurate recall and important events strengthens memory
(A03)
What is the effect of individual differences in misleading information
People can be more or less vulnerable to misleading information
Older people have difficulty recalling making them more vulnerable
(A01)
What is the negative effect of anxiety on ewt
Automatic skills aren’t affected but performance based cognitive task are reduce by stress
Johnson and Scott weapon focus effect
- the weapon in a criminals hand distracts attention and reduces the accuracy of identification
- procedure = people in a waiting room and hear an argument
- one group the man had a pen and the other group the man had a knife
As people were focused on the knife they had less accurate recall than the pen group
(A01)
What is the positive effect of anxiety on ewt
High anxiety gives more accurate and enduring memories
They remember so if in a similar situation they know how to respond
Christianson and hubinette
- question 58 real witnesses of a sweden bank robbery 15 months after of people who were either victims or bystanders
The victims who experience more higher anxiety recalled better than the bystanders
However people mostly remembered well
(A03)
What is the effect of real life vs lab study in anxiety of ewt
Christianson and Hubinette was a real study form a real crime
Deffenbacher reviewed 34 lab studies and found that the lab studies show that high anxiety had bad recall and real life events had less accurate recall than lab studies
(A03)
Why might the weapon focus effect be caused by anxiety
Pickel et al found reduced accuracy of identification because weapon focus effect could be because of surprise not anxiety
Procedure : participant watch a thief enter a hair dressing salon
Scissors - less accurate
Handgun - more accurate
Raw whole chicken - more accurate
(A03)
What is an alternative conclusion for effect of anxiety on ewt
Halford and Milne
Victims of violent crimes recalled more correctly than none violent crimes
(A01)
What is the reporting everything stage in the cognitive interview
Recalling a small insignificant detail may cue memories of an important item
Little pieces of memories from many witness can help piece together and built a complete version
(A01)
What is the mental reinstatement stage of the cognitive interview
Witness recall emotions felt during the event and place themselves back at the scene of the crime
Memory become more accessible and act as emotional and context cues
(A01)
What is the changing the order stage in the cognitive interview
Recalling the events backward help focus on actual event not pre existing ideas about the situation or location
(A01)
What is the changing the perspective stage in the cognitive interview
Anderson and pichert got participants to recall the scene from the perspective of a house buyer of burglar
Details of the event varied depending on the character
(A03)
What is some evidence to support the usefulness of the cognitive interview
Fisher et al found that witnesses reported in greater detail of witnesses when American detectives trained with the cognitive interview
However this can’t be generalised to other countries
(A03)
Why might the cognitive interview be unreliable and less accurate
Koenken et al found that witnesses recalled more incorrectly than in a standard interview
As the cognitive interview requires more detail and increases the chance for mistakes
(A03)
What are some practical issues with the cognitive interview
Cost of training
Time of training
Sift through unnecessary details
Quality of training
