Memory

Question 1

Multi- store memory model (Atkinson and shiffrin)

1.) Why can it be seen as a kind of flow chart?

Where does info first Register then briefly describe it and it’s stores?

Answer 1

1.) model is divided into different stages and info flows through each of these stages.

2.) info first registers in the sensory memory. It has a very high capacity but it’s duration is 0.5 seconds
2 main stores = iconic and echoic. Iconic (remember it as 👀conic) is a stores for visual info with info encoded visually and echoics a store for auditory info encoded acoustically.
If we don’t pay attention to info in sensory store then we forget it via. Decay

Question 2

Multi store memory model continued

1. ) what’s the second stage in multi store memory? Then outline this stage
2. ) What’s the final stage of multi store memory model? Outline it
3. ) key features of the multi store memory model?

Answer 2

1.) short term memory. If info was paid attention to in sensory memory then it will enter short term memory. Info here’s encoded acoustically.
Has a limited duration of about 30 secs. Has a capacity of 7 +/- 2 items. Info can be forgetter from short term memory by decay or displacement.

2. ) the final stage is the long term store. If infos rehearsed in STM it can enter the LTM. Infos encoded semantically in LTM. Once a memory enters the LTM it can last a lifetime. It has an unlimited capacity. Despite being able to retrieve info for a lifetime we may experience retrieval failure which can cause us too be unable to access our LTM’s
3. ) memory is a linear process. Short term memory and long term memory are different stores. Attention and rehearsal are key.

Question 3

Evidence for 2 separate memory stores?

Primacy and recency effect?

Answer 3

1. )Baddeley et al’s study shows there is different coding for STM and LTM. Case studies of Clive wearing and HM show STM and LTM are different as well as the primacy and recently effects.
2. )Memory is better for words at the beginning of a list (primacy effect) and at the end of a list ( recency effect ). The primacy effect suggests words are put into LTM as we have enough time to rehearse them and the recency effect suggests words are still in our LTM. Words in the middle were shown too long ago to be hold in STM but not long enough to be put in LTM

Question 4

Evaluation: use studies to evaluate MSMM

Answer 4

Peterson and Peterson refers to duration of STM and rehearsal
Baddeley refers to coding in STM and LTM
Bahrick et al talks about duration of LTM

The multi store model of memory can’t explain KF which would suggest there is more than one type of STM as his verbal STM is damaged but his visual STM and LTM are ok.
Doesn’t allow for different types of LTM eg. Clive wearings procedural memory
Quite a reductionist approach (simplistic view)
Suggests that rehearsal is key and required for memories however flashbulb memories do not require rehearsal

Question 5

Types of LTM are ?

Outline episodic? Give an example of a type of episodic

Semantic memory?

Procedural?

Answer 5

1. )Episodic, semantic and procedural
2. ) episodic memories are complex memories containing large amounts of info about events that occur in our lives eg. Our first day at school. These events are time stamped so we know when they occurred. An example of an episodic memory is a flashbulb memory which are v detailed and vivid snapshots of an emotion. Generally are associated with strong emotions that occur when something shocking happens eg. News of 9/11. These kind of memories are resistant to forgetting due too great emotional significance.
3. ) semantic memories aren’t time stamped so we don’t know when we learnt these things and refers to knowledge about the world eg. Capital of France and word meanings
4. ) These memories are hard for us to explain and are the memory of our actions eg . How to ride a bike. These memories don’t require conscious recall

Question 6

HM study for msmm
Outline?

HM is an anonymity

Answer 6

1.) HM had parts of medial temporal lobe, amygdala and hippocampus removed in an operation. His semantic memory was still in tact but his episodic was unable to create new memories eg. About events in our lives. Suggests therefore that there are different types of LTM and they’re stored in different areas of the brain (acts as limitation in evaluation of MSMM). His STM mainly unaffected suggesting STM and LTM are different.

Question 7

Clive wearing study: MSMM

Evaluation of LTM using Clive and HM

Answer 7

1.) Clive Wearing had suffered brain damage including damage to his hippocampus. STM unaffected but can no longer create new LTM’s. His semantic LTM and procedural LTM for playing the piano were in tact but his episodic capabilities damaged as could no longer create new episodic memories. - he is the guy that remembers his wife but can’t remember when she’s visited.

2.) Brain scans provide valid and objective data showing that different parts of brain are used for episodic and semantic memories eg. Right prefrontal cortex for episodic and left prefrontal cortex for semantic memories.
Has real life application these findings as we can now target different types of memory impairments eg. Patients with cognitive impairment had treatment to improve episodic memory.
Case studies however are limited however as lack generalisability and struggle to control variables.
Some people suggest there isn’t three types of LTM but instead two types which include: declarative and non- declarative (non declarative is procedural and other two go in declarative) Declarative is explainable

Question 8

3 stages to memory?

Define encoding?

I’m STM and LTM how are things mainly encoded?

The above findings supported by Baddeley 1966 study- describe how?

Answer 8

1. )Encoding , storage and retrieval
2. ) it’s where sensory info is converted to format that’s storable. This can be acoustic, visual or semantic (semantic is coding by meaning and semantic info is things we know).
3. ) STM things mainly encoded acoustically whereas STM mainly semantically

4.) above findings is we mainly encode acoustically in STM and semantically in LTM.
P’s shown word lists in one of 4 conditions:
Acoustically similar / dissimilar, semantically sim/ dis. P’s had to immediately recall list then recall again 20 mins later. Immediate recall was worse with acoustically similar, delayed recall was worse with semantically similar therefore supporting idea at top.

Question 9

Storage of memory two key parts.

Then define the key main parts ?

Miller 1956 findings ?

Answer 9

1. ) Duration and capacity = 2 main parts of memory storage
2. ) Duration is how long the memory lasts. Capacity is how much info can be stored at a time. Capacity of STM is small 7+/-2 items. LTM has unlimited capacity. STM Duration is very limited. LTM has potentially unlimited duration. If info needs to be stored longer than LTM allows then we transfer it to LTM.
3. ) we can store 7+/-2 items in STM and we can chunk bits of info together to make one item.

Question 10

Peterson and Peterson study (consonant trigram)

Bahrick et al
Schoolbook

Answer 10

1.) 24 p’s did 8 trials each. Given consonant trigram + 3 digit number. To stop rehearsal asked to count back in 3’s from digit number. After while p’s find it hard to recall 3 consonant trigram showing memory decays in STM.

Lacks eco val as most research done in lab
And artificial stimuli used not life like so may be hard to generalise.

2.) 392 Americans between ages of 17-74 tested on memory of high school classmates. Did photo recognition and free recall task.
48 years later recall had declined but still recalled some info. Free recall was worse than photo recognition.- our memory can store large amounts of info but may not always be able to recall it so may need hints.

Free recall after 15 years was 60% accurate dropping to 30% after 48 year.
15 years after graduation 90% accurate with identifying names and faces
Dropped to 80% for name recognition after 48 years.

Shows memories can last however certain amounts of info may be lost over time.
Real life stimuli shows how memory works in real life so can generalise. Large sample so generalise to whole pop.
Decline after 48 years may not be problems with LTM but instead problems with memory in old age.

Most research done in lab set so may slightly lack eco val

Question 11

Working memory model define

What’s central executive?

What’s Visuo-spatial sketchpad ?

Phonological loop?

Answer 11

1. ) Suggests STM is more complex than MSMM suggests with more than one part making it up.
2. ) central executive is control system that coordinates the 3 Slave systems and draws info from LTM. It can process any kind of sensory info and decides which Slave systems we need. Has very limited capacity.
3. ) temporary storage system for visual info. Limited capacity of around 3-4 items. Visuo-spatial sketchpad also known as inner eye and deals with visual and spatial info. Made of visual cache (storage of visual data) eg. Imagining a cat and inner scribe (arranges objects visually) eg.thinking of cat upside down .
4. ) temporary storage system for verbal info. Has very small capacity of what can be said in 2 seconds. Made of two parts: phonological store (inner ear) and the articulatory control process (inner voice). Explains why you struggle to write and speak at same time. Shorter words can be repeated more so are remembered better

Question 12

Episodic buffer define?

Baddeley et al (1975) study

Evaluation of working memory model?

Answer 12

1. ) Temporary store of info. Combines visual , spatial and verbal info. Has limited capacity of about 4 chunks of info. Links working memory to LTM.
2. ) dual task study so you carry out two tasks at one time. Participants struggled more carrying out two visual tasks eg. Tracking a beam of light and describing letter F than a visual task and a verbal task. This is due to both visual tasks competing for attention of VSS so supports idea must be different slave systems for different tasks.

3.) little is known about central executive so models not been fully explained and therefore may not be fully valid
Gives more detailed explanation of STM than MSMM
Supported by Baddeley et al’s dual task studies which said that participants struggled more doing two visual tasks than a verbal and a visual task as both visual tasks were competing for the attentions of the visuo-spatial sketchpad so supports idea different slave systems for different tasks.
Doesn’t overemphasis importance of rehearsal and sees memory as a process rather than a store

Question 13

KF study describe

Evaluation

Answer 13

1.) KF suffered damage led to his STM but LTM kept in tact. Occurs after brain damage from motorbike accident. After accident showed primacy effect as words went into LTM but no recency effect
His STM for verbal info was affected but for visual info was unaffected

2.) KF study acts as a criticism for MSMM linear approach but working memory model can explain it. Also criticises MSM as KF study suggests there is more than one type of STM
Case study of only 1 person so results are hard to generalise to the whole population. However study is of real life so had good ecological validity.
Lots of detail/data collected as a longitudinal study

Question 14

Forgetting two types?

Outline interference?

Two types of interference?

Answer 14

1. ) interference and retrieval failure
2. ) An explanation for forgetting in LTM where the memory still exists however there may be trouble accessing it. Two or more memories may interfere with each other and is made worse when memories are more similar.

3.) proactive interference interference is where old memory interferes with new one eg. Previously leant French interferes with your new learning of Spanish.
Retroactive interference is where new memory interferes with old one eg. You know your new mobile number but can’t remember your old one.

Question 15

Mcgeoch and McDonald study

Evaluation of study

Answer 15

1.) p’s were given a list of 10 words and asked to remember it. Then either given a list of: synonyms, antonyms, unrelated adjectives, nonsense syllables, 3 digit numbers or no second list . Then asked to recall first list.
Synonyms group found it hardest averaging 1 word remembered whereas no second list found it easiest remembering on average 4 words . More similar things are more likely they are to interfere

Lacks eco val as done in a lab and just uses a list of words
Objective , numerical data produced that can easily be comparable.
Independent groups design reduced demand characteristics so less likely to guess the aim however more likely to experience participant variables.

Question 16

Postman study (additional study ) not overly important

Basic evaluation of this study and Mcgeoch and McDonald

Answer 16

Word pairs all given an initial list. Then half given another list and half given no second list. Then asked to recall first list. Those who had second list found it harder to recall first list so they’d experienced retroactive interference.

Lab studies have good control but lack eco val so hard to generalise.
Artificial stimuli used eg. Word lists. Also only short time period used between learning and recall so may limit the study

Question 17

Retrieval failure outline

Encoding specificity principle

Answer 17

We forget due to having insufficient cues. When memories are created we also create a number of cues that go along with the memory. If cues aren’t present when we try to recall the memory it may appear that we’ve forgotten the memory.

For a cue to help recall of info it needs to be present at encoding and retrieval. If absent at retrieval this could cause forgetting. Different types of cues we have to consider: internal and external

Question 18

Tulving and Pearlstone study supports encoding specificity principle

Define context dependant forgetting

Answer 18

P’s were given group of words to remember each word was shown with a category eg. Science -psychology). P’s were split into groups and asked to recall words. Group with categories remembered more words on average than group without categories. So helps conclude that if cues are present at encoding and retrieval we are less likely to forget.

Context depending forgetting refers to our external cues and if our external environment is the same at encoding and retrieval this will help retrieval. If our external environments different at encoding and retrieval we may differ retrieval failure.

Question 19

Godden and Baddeley (1975)

Define state dependant forgetting

Answer 19

Divers learnt list of words on land or underwater then had to recall the list of words on land or underwater so there’s 4 conditions. Accuracy was 40% lower in groups where locations of encoding and retrieval differed. This supports context dependant forgetting where if external environments differ at encoding and retrieval we may suffer retrieval failure

State dependant forgetting refers to our internal cues. If our internal state (eg.our mood) is the same at encoding and retrieval this will help retrieval. If our internal state is different at encoding and retrieval we may suffer retrieval failure

Question 20

Goodwin et al study (1969)

Evaluation of Goodwin et al study

Overall evaluation of forgetting

Answer 20

Male p’s encoded info. Some drunk , some drunk some not drunk. Then following day they were asked to recall the info some drunk some not. Recall was better for those in sane external state at encoding and retrieval.

Study is quite relevant too real life
However may suffer due too it being independent groups design people may have different alcohol tolerances.

Number of studies show forgetting in real life setting such as Goodwin et al these therefore increase the validity. However some show it in extreme settings eg . Godden and Baddeley so it may not reflect real life.
There’s so many different cues to control so hard to control them all so this is a problem with the encoding specificity principle. Hard to test the encoding specificity principle so lacks empirical evidence.

Question 21

EWT describe

Reconstructive nature of memory describe?

What are schemas?

Answer 21

Plays a large role in justice system and some cases EWT is the only evidence. EWT may not always be completely accurate

Multi store memory model suggests once info is in our LTM it’s there forever however EWT shows the imperfections of human memory and suggests that in our LTM info may be changed over time. Schemas and stereotypes can cause our memory to change

Schemas are bits of knowledge we have about something that are from past experience eg. We have schema for going to wedding even if we’ve never been to one

Question 22

2 factors affecting EWT?

Outline anxiety factor

Yuille and cutshall (1986) study

Answer 22

Anxiety eg. Emotional state of panic and misleading info

Conflicting evidence about effect of anxiety. Lab studies tend to find anxiety hinders memory whereas natural studies tend to find it helps memory

13 witnesses of real life shooting were interviewed 4-5 months after accident. Patients had to score how stressed they felt at the time of the crime. More stressed participants had more accurate recollection of events. 88% vs 75% in less stress group so suggests anxiety improves recall
Real life situation so high eco val. However 13 witnesses is a small sample so perhaps lacks population validity
Was 4-5 months after so may not remember exactly how it was and also distance from crime may have affected stress levels. Closer people are key have better recall. Also self report used so subjective data

Question 23

Weapon focus effect

Loftus 1979 study

Answer 23

Suggests if a weapon is involved in a crime our attentions drawn to it and we don’t focus on other details such as peripheral details. If a weapons involved it’ll make you more anxious. This can therefore affect our recall

P’s either saw friendly convo and man walks past with pen or argument and man walks past with bloody knife. Then shown 50 photos and asked to identify man. Those who saw man with bloody knife less accurate. Field studies lack control

Independent groups design stops demand characteristics. Proves weapon focus effect.
Bit unethical as could cause people psychological harm and no informed consent
Suggests relationship between anxiety and accuracy of recall is curvilinear eg. Like inverted u shape. Eye witness testimony is best in medium( natural ) levels of anxiety.

Question 24

Misleading info define

Outline leading questions?

Loftus and Palmer study 1974

Answer 24

Misleading info can affect our EWT. Has two elements which are leading questions and post - event discussion.

Leading questions is a question that may affect somebody’s recall. You need to know how too ask the best kind of questions too get the most accurate recall.

P’s shown image of a car crash. P’s then asked how fast they thought the car was going when they: hit, bumped, smashed, collided or contacted. Verb used affected speed people thought they were going at do the wording of the question affected participants response.
Contacted had lowest mean estimate of speed of 31.8 vs highest of 40.8 for smashed.
Small sample size of 45 people so lacks pop val and hard to generalise findings to whole population. All people used were students so hard too generalise as they may not have driven long so may not be as confident drivers. Using different aged participants therefore could obtain different results. No anxiety would be present in this study so study may be limited as anxiety would have affected memory

Question 25

Loftus 1975

Answer 25

P’s shown a video of events leading upto a car crash. Control group was asked questions that lined up with video whereas experimental group asked questions which contained misleading info. Experimental group asked how fast was white sports car going when it passed the barn even though there was no barn in the original footage. Later they were asked if they had seen a barn in the original footage. 17% said they saw barn in experimental group vs 3% in control group. People may not behave in a real life situation and they may guess the aim so demand characteristics

Question 26

Post event discussion

Gabbert et al study

Evaluation of Gabbert et al study

Answer 26

This is when witnesses discuss the incident and this may combine the info of the 2 p’s therefore affecting their memory.

Gabbert et al study is where participants were shown safe crime but from different angles and then were asked to discuss the crime. 71% recalled aspects they hadn’t seen vs 0% in control group therefore this memory conformity and that people are influenced by others

Has application to real life as police now know if memory conformity so can separate witnesses. Watching a video is quite an
artificial task. May experience demand characteristics as p’s have guessed the aim of the study

Question 27

Cognitive interview outline point

Stages of cognitive interview

Answer 27

Method to get most effective/ reliable recall from eyewitness of a crime. It decreases chance of EWT being affected by leading questions. It tries too decrease amount of False info and increase the amount of correct info versus a standard interview. Memory can be affected by schemas however cognitive interview tries to decrease this

1st stage= reporting everything with all details and eyewitness revisits moment in their mind
2nd stage= context reinstatement (most important of the terms ) so you put the eyewitness in the same state of mind helping to remember sights, smells , emotions , feelings from incident. This helps with retrieval.
3rd stage- recalling incident in reverse order. Trying to access memories in different order can help retrieval.
4th stage- recall incident from different persons perspective. Viewing incident from somebody else’s perspective can improve our retrieval

During first stage you should t interrupt as it could disturb flow of recall

Question 28

Enhanced cognitive interview elements

Fisher et al study

Mini evaluation points of CI as a whole

Answer 28

1.) ask open questions, tailor language too who you’re talking too eg,child or somebody with low IQ. Reduce amount of distractions and don’t use judgemental comments. Encourage witness to relax and speak slowly

Study was a field experiment where 7 policemen trained too use cognitive interview vs 9 who weren’t. Interviews by policeman recorded before and after training. Found they collected 47% more info after training than before so it was successful and has real life application and now commonly used by police. Small sample size though so hard to generalise to pop so lacks pop val and only carried out in Florida. How people respond may be different in different places so partially lacks pop validity. Fisher et Al’s study shows cognitive interview can be used to enhance memory. More info collected doesn’t necessarily mean all the info collect was correct or relevant so may not be as useful as it may seem and they haven’t actually reduced effect of schemas.

Different cultures use differing variations of CI are used in different cultures and different police forces so it’s hard to compare the findings of all these versions and check reliability. CI is time consuming training staff and can be very costly