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A Level Psychology > Memory > Flashcards

Memory Flashcards

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1
Q

Name the two explanations for forgetting

A

Interference

Retrieval failure

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2
Q

What is the interference theory for forgetting?

A

When two pieces of information conflict with each other -> forgetting one or both / some distortion of memory

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3
Q

Which type of memory does interference forgetting mainly explain?

A

LTM
Once info has reached the LTM is is more or less permanent -> any forgetting of LTM is because we can’t access it.
-> interference makes it harder for us to locate memories

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4
Q

Name the types of interference (forgetting)

A

Proactive interference

Retroactive interference

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5
Q

What is proactive interference? (forgetting)

A

Occurs when an older memory interferes with a newer one.

Eg a teacher has learned so many names in the past, so they find it difficult remembering new names.

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6
Q

What is retroactive interference? (forgetting)

A

Happens when a newer memory interferes with an older one.

Eg a teacher has learned so many new names this year, so they find it difficult to remembering names of students last year.

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7
Q

When is the affect of interference worst? (Forgetting)

Who did research on this?

A

When both memories are similar.

McGeoch + McDonald (1931)

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8
Q

How did McGeoch + McDonald (1931) study retroactive interference? (Forgetting)

A

By changing the amount of similarity between two sets of materials.
RPs had 10 words to learn until 100% accuracy. -> then learned a new list…
Group 1: synonyms
Group 2: antonyms
Group 3: unrelated words to original list
Group 4: nonsense syllables
Group 5: three-digit numbers
Group 6: no new list
RESULTS :- recall of original list depended on nature of second list.
Synonyms = worst -> interference is worst when memories are similar.

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9
Q

Give strengths of interference as an explanation for forgetting

A

• Consistent evidence from lab experiments
-> controlled conditions -> internally valid results

• Supportive real life evidence

  • > Baddeley + Hitch (1977) - rugby players remembering opposing teams names from that season.
  • > accurate recall depended on number of games played since the match, not length of time.
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10
Q

Give limitations of interference as an explanation for forgetting

A

• Low ecological validity

-> lab experiments -> artificial, meaningless tasks -> lack mundane realism -> difficult to generalise to daily life.

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11
Q

What is the retrieval failure theory for forgetting?

A

People forget information due to insufficient cues.
-> cues that were present at time of initially learning the info must also be present at time of remembering.
Otherwise will be unable to access the memory.

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12
Q

Who created the Encoding Specificity Principle?

A

Tulving (1983)

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13
Q

What is the Encoding Specificity Principle?

A

States that if a cue is to help us recall info, it must be present when we encode and retrieve it.

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14
Q

Give examples of types of cues that might trigger memories

A

Meaningful cues
Context - external cues
State - internal cues

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15
Q

Who researched context dependent forgetting as a part of retrieval failure?

A

Godden + Baddeley (1975)

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16
Q

How did Godden + Baddeley (1975) investigate context dependent forgetting as a part of retrieval failure?

A

Study of deep sea divers working underwater -> divers must remember instructions given to them.
RPs learned 36 words either on land / in water and had to recall them on land / in water.
1. Land - land
2. Land - water
3. Water - water
4. Water - land
RESULTS:- 40% lower recall in non-similar context -> different external cues.

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17
Q

Who researched state dependent forgetting as a part of retrieval failure?

A

Carter + Cassadayn (1998)

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18
Q

How did Carter + Cassaday (1998) investigate state dependent forgetting as a part of retrieval failure?

A

RPs given a list of words and passages to learn while on drug/not and recall on drug/not.
Drug = anti-histamine -> mild sedative, slightly drowsy. -> change internal physiological state.
1. On drug - on drug
2. On drug - not on drug
3. Not on drug - not on drug
4. Not on drug - on drug
RESULTS:- significantly worse recall on different conditions -> different internal cues.

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19
Q

Give strengths of retrieval failure as an explanation for forgetting

A

• Supportive evidence

  • > Godden + Baddeley (1975) - context dependent forgetting
  • > Carter + Cassaday (1998) - state dependent forgetting
  • Lab studies -> controlled conditions -> internally valid.
  • Real life application -> generalisable
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20
Q

Give limitations of retrieval failure as an explanation for forgetting

A

• Contradictory evidence

  • > Baddeley (1997) argues context affects aren’t very strong in real life. - must be extreme differences
  • > Smith (1979) - basement recall

• Limited explanation
-> Godden + Baddeley (1980) suggest context affect depends on kind of memory being tested - replicated underwater experiment

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21
Q

How is Smith’s basement experiment (1979) a limitation of retrieval failure as an explanation for forgetting?

A

RPs learnt 80 words in a basement.
RESULTS:-
Basement - basement = 18 words recalled
Basement - room upstairs = 12 words recalled
Basement - visualise basement = 17 words recalled

Imagining can aid recall in different contexts

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22
Q

How is a Godden + Baddeley’s replication of their underwater study (1980) a limitation of retrieval failure as an explanation for forgetting?

A

Used recognition test instead of recall.
RESULTS:- same performance in all four conditions.

-> presence / absence of cues only affects memory when you test it in a certain way

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23
Q

Name the factors that can affect eyewitness testimony

A

Misleading information

Anxiety

24
Q

Define misleading information

A

Refers to incorrect information given to the eyewitness usually after the event.
Eg leading questions, post-event discussion between co-witnesses

25
Q

Define leading question

A

Refers to a question which, because of the way it is phrases, suggests a certain answer.

26
Q

Who conducted a study investigating the effects of leading questions on eye witness testimony ?

A

Loftus + Palmer (1974)

27
Q

How did Loftus + Palmer investigate the effects of leading questions on eyewitness testimony?

A

RPs watched film clips from car accidents, and were asked questions about them -> eg how fast the car was travelling.
5 conditions - variation of the same question, with different verb used to describe the speed of car.

RESULTS:- ‘contacted’ -> 31.8mph, ‘smashed’-> 40.5mph.
-> leading Qs significantly impact EWT.

28
Q

Give limitations of Loftus + Palmer’s study of leading questions on eyewitness testimony

A

Lacks ecological validity.
-> watching clips of car accidents is very different to seeing it in real life -> cannot generalise findings outside of lab setting.

29
Q

Name the explanations for the effect of leading questions on eyewitness testimony?

A

The response-bias explanation.

The substitution explanation.

30
Q

What is the response-bias explanation for the effect of leading questions on eyewitness testimony?

A

Suggests that the wording of the question does not change the RPs memories, just influences how they decide to answer.

31
Q

What is the substitution explanation for the effect of leading questions on eyewitness testimony?

A

Suggests that the wording of a leading question actually does change the RPs memories of the event

32
Q

Who conducted a study that supported the substitution explanation for the effect of leading questions on eyewitness testimony? Give details

A

Loftus + Palmer (1974)
Key question was “did you see any broken glass?”
RPs were given different verbs.

RESULTS:-
‘Smashed’ = 16/50 said yes.
‘Hit’ = 7/50 said yes.
Control = 6/50 said yes.

33
Q

Define post-event discussion.

How does this effect eyewitness testimony?

A

When co-witnesses to a crime discuss the event with each other.
Combine information from others / their own memories -> EWTs become contaminated.

34
Q

Name the researcher who investigated the effect of post event discussion on eyewitness testimony

A

Gabbert (2003)

35
Q

How did Gabbert (2003) investigate the effect of post event discussion on eyewitness testimony?

A

Each RP watched a video of the same crime but from different points of view -> could see different elements.
RPs discussed what they had seen before the recall test.

RESULTS:-
71% mistakenly recalled aspects of even that they couldn’t see.
Control group = 0% mistakes.
-> witnesses go along with each other for social approval = memory conformity

36
Q

May be subject to demand characteristics -> RPs want to please researcher.

A

Give a limitation of Gabbert’s (2003) study into effects of post event discussion on eyewitness testimony

37
Q

Give a strength of all research into effects of misleading information on eyewitness testimony

A

Real life application.

-> police officers encouraged to avoid using leading questions.

38
Q

Who investigated whether anxiety has a negative effect on eyewitness testimony recall?

A

Johnson + Scott (1976)

39
Q

How did Johnson + Scott (1976) investigate whether anxiety has a negative effect on recall for eyewitness testimony?

A

Led RPs to believe that they were going to take part in a lab experiment.
Sat in waiting room -> heard an argument.
Low anxiety condition : man walked through with grease on his hands.
High anxiety condition : sound of breaking glass, man with bloody paper knife.
Asked to pick out man from 50 photos

40
Q

What were the results from Johnson + Scott’s (1976) experiment into the effect of anxiety on eyewitness testimony?

A

[waiting room, man walked through, low/high anxiety condition]

Low anxiety - 49% correctly identified man from 50 photos.
High anxiety - 33% correctly identified man.
-> tunnel theory of memory - attention focuses on source of anxiety i.e. Weapon.

41
Q

Give a limitation of Johnson + Scott’s (1976) experiment into the negative effect of anxiety on eyewitness testimony

A

Lacks internal validity
-> Pickel (1998) suggests it may be testing surprise rather than anxiety.
Pickel - similar experiment using scissors, handgun, wallet, raw chicken in a hairdressing salon video.
Poorer accuracy for chicken and gun -> due to unusualness, not anxiety.

42
Q

Who conducted research into the positive effect of anxiety on eyewitness testimony?

A

Yuille + Cutshall (1986)

43
Q

How did Yuille + Cutshall (1986) investigate the positive effect of anxiety on eyewitness testimony?

A

Study of a real life shooting in a gun shop in Canada. -> shop owner shot a thief dead.
21 witnesses - 13 took part in study.
Interviews 4-5 months after incident, compared with original police interviews.
Accuracy determined by number of details reported in each account.
Asked to rate how stressed they felt at the time -> 7 point scale.
Asked if they had any emotional problems since.

44
Q

Give the results of Yuille + Cutshall’s (1986) study into the positive effect of anxiety on eyewitness testimony

A

Very accurate accounts.
Little change in amount of accuracy after 5 months -> some details were less accurate.
Highest levels of stress -> most accurate.

45
Q

Give a limitation of Yuille + Cutshall’s (1986) study into the positive effect of anxiety on eyewitness testimony

A

Lacks internal validity
-> no control over EVs that may have occurred at time of event / since. Eg post event discussion / police leading questions.

46
Q

What is Yerkes-Dodson Law? (Effect of anxiety on eyewitness testimony)

A

Deffenbacher (1983) applied Yerkes-Dodson Law to EWT.

  • > memory becomes more accurate as anxiety level increases.
  • > optimum level of anxiety -> maximum memory accuracy.
  • > more stress than this -> lower accuracy.
47
Q

What is a limitation with the research done into the effect of anxiety on eyewitness testimony?

A

• Anxiety is difficult to define, operationalise and measure.
Eg anxiety has many elements inc behavioural, emotional, cognitive.
• A situation that causes anxiety for one person may not be the same for another.
-> lowers internal validity bc subjective.

48
Q

What process is used to improve the accuracy of eyewitness testimony?
Who introduced it?

A

Cognitive interview

Fisher + Geiselman (1992)

49
Q

Name the stages of cognitive interview

A

Report everything
Context reinstatement
Reverse the order
Changed perspective

50
Q

What does the ‘report everything’ stage of the cognitive interview involve?

A

Asking the witness to report everything they saw, even if it seems irrelevant.
It may truffer other memories.

51
Q

What does the ‘context reinstatement’ stage of cognitive interview involve?

A

Witness returns to the original crime scene in their mind.
Imagine the environment, emotions.
-> related to context-dependent forgetting.

52
Q

What does the ‘reverse the order’ stage of cognitive interview involve?

A

Witnesses asked to recall information from different starting points.
Work forwards / backwards from this point.
-> stops people reporting their expectations
-> prevents dishonesty (More difficult to make stuff up backwards)

53
Q

What does the ‘changed perspective’ stage of cognitive interview involve?

A

Witnesses asked to recall event from a changed perspective eg put in the shoes of victim etc.
Report what they would’ve seen from that point of view.
Disrupts expectations / schema.

54
Q

What is the Enhances Cognitive Interview?

Who developed it?

A

Fisher et al (1987)
Additional elements of the CI to focus on the social dynamics of the interaction.
Eg interviewer needs to know when to make eye contact.
Inc ideas such as reducing EW anxiety, minimising distractions, getting witness to speak slowly, open ended questions.

55
Q

Give a limitation of the enhanced cognitive interview as a technique for improving eyewitness testimony

A

Time consuming.

  • > More time required to establish rapport with witness / allow them to relax.
  • > requires special training.
  • > it is unlikely that proper CI is actually used.
56
Q

Which stages of cognitive interview are most effective?

Who discovered this?

A

Report everything
Context reinstatement

Milne + Bull (2002)

57
Q

Give a strength of the enhanced cognitive interview for improving eyewitness testimony

A

Real life practical benefits.

Kohnken et al (1999) - combined data from 50 studies.

  • > enhanced CI provided more correct info than standard interview.
  • > More chance of catching criminals -> benefits society.

A Level Psychology (6 decks)

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