Approaches Flashcards
Define psychology
The scientific study of the human mind and its functions, especially those functions affecting behaviour in a given context.
Define science
A means of acquiring knowledge through systematic and objective investigation. The aim is to discover general laws.
Define introspection
The first systematic experimental attempt to study the mind by breaking up conscious awareness into basic structures of thoughts, images and sensations.
(Wundt 1879)
What did Rene Descartes suggest?
At what period of time?
Descartes (1596-1650), French philosopher.
Suggested that the mind and body structure independent from each other -> “Cartesian dualism”.
Suggested that the mind can be an object of study in its own right.
What did John Locke suggest?
At what period of time?
Locke (1632-1704).
Suggested the idea that all experience can be obtained through the senses, and that human beings inherit neither knowledge nor instincts -> “empiricism”.
-> formed the basis of the behaviourist approach.
What did Charles Darwin suggest?
At what period of time?
Darwin (1809-1882).
Suggested that all human and animal behaviour had changed over successive generations due to natural selection -> “evolutionary theory”.
-> idea is present in the biological approach.
What was psychology known as during the 17th-19th century?
Experimental philosophy.
Who opened the first experimental psychology lab?
When?
Where?
Wundt.
1879.
Leipzig, Germany.
What did Wundt’s experiment involve?
Wundt (1879), introspection.
Wundt and his co-workers recorded their own conscious thoughts -> aim of breaking these down into their constituent parts.
Isolating the structure of consciousness in this way = “structuralism”.
Evaluate Wundt’s experiment of introspection
Easily replicable -> standardised instructions.
Internally valid -> strictly controlled conditions, using same stimulus each time eg ticking metronome.
Was Wundt’s experiment of introspection scientific?
Yes
Who developed the psychodynamic approach?
At what period of time?
Sigmund Freud, 1900s
How did the psychodynamic approach develop?
Sigmund Freud, 1900s.
Freud emphasised the influence of the unconscious mind on behaviour, alongside the development of his person-centred therapy, “psychoanalysis”.
He argued that physical problems could be explained in terms of conflicts within the mind.
Who developed the behaviourist approach?
What year?
John Watson (1913) BF Skinner (1953)
Who developed the humanistic approach?
At what period of time?
Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow, 1950s.
What did the humanistic approach do?
Rogers and Maslow, 1950s.
The humanistic approach rejected the views favoured by behaviourism and psychodynamic approach that human behaviour was not determined by the individual.
What do humanistic psychologists emphasise?
The importance of self determination and free will in influencing behaviour.
When was the cognitive approach introduced?
What did this coincide with?
1960s.
When the digital computer was invented -> metaphor for the operations of the human mind.
What did the cognitive approach reintroduce to psychology?
Reintroduces the study of mental processes, but in a much more scientific way than Wundt’s earlier investigations.
Who developed social learning theory?
When?
Albert Bandura, 1960s.
What does social learning theory draw attention to?
Bandura, 1960s.
SLT draws attention to the role of cognitive factors in learning -> providing a bridge between the new cognitive approach and traditional behaviourism.
When did the biological approach begin to develop?
Why?
1980s onwards.
Due to advances in technology -> increased understanding of the brain and biological processes.
When did cognitive neuroscience begin to develop?
What does it bring together?
Beginning of the 21st century.
Brings together cognitive and biological approaches.
What does cognitive neuroscience do?
- Brings together cognitive approach and biological approach.
- It built on the earlier computer models and investigates how biological structures influence mental states.
Describe the emergence of psychology as a science
- Wundt’s introspection, 1879 = controlled but subjective (varies greatly between people so can’t generalise).
- Watson -> a truly scientific psychology should only study phenomena that can be observed and measured -> behaviourist approach.
- Experimental methods used -> scientific.
- Cognitive revolution 1960s -> study of mental processes is highly scientific -> lab test based inferences are made.
- Biological psychology uses specialised brain scanners etc.
Define learning approach
The idea that we are born as a blank slate and all behaviours are learned.
Name the approaches / theories that are a part of learning approach
Behaviourist approach.
Social learning theory.
Name the types of behaviourist approach
Classical conditioning
Operant conditioning
Define classical conditioning
Learning by association
Define operant conditioning
Learning by consequences
What is classical conditioning?
Assumes learning occurs when an association is made between a previously neutral stimulus and a reflex response.
Can be positive or negative.
Who devised the experiment on ‘Little Albert’?
What was it testing?
What did the results show?
Watson and Raynor (1920).
Testing classical conditioning.
Proved that phobias can develop by classical conditioning.
What did Pavlov’s experiments test?
Give an example of one of his experiments
Tested classical conditioning.
Eg conditioning a bell to cause a dog to salivate.
Define neutral stimulus
Something in an environment which does not initially cause a response
Define unconditioned stimulus
Anything that naturally has the power to produce a response in a human / animal
Define unconditioned response
A natural reflex response to an unconditioned stimulus
Define conditioned stimulus
The neutral stimulus becomes the conditioned stimulus when it acquires the ability to produce a specific response in the human / animal (after conditioning)
Define conditioned response
The learnt response to something that doesn’t naturally have the power to produce a response in a human / animal
Describe the process of classical conditioning
UCS -> UR.
NS -> no response.
NS + UCS -> UR.
CS -> CR.
Define stimulus generalisation
When stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus produce the conditioned response.
Define stimulus discrimination
The conditioned response is only produced in response to the conditioned stimulus and not to similar stimuli
Define extinction
When the conditioned response declines and disappears because the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented in the absence of the unconditioned stimulus
Name the ways in which operant conditioning can occur
Positive reinforcement.
Negative reinforcement.
Punishment.
Define positive reinforcement
A behaviour is more likely to occur due to positive / pleasant consequences
Define negative reinforcement
A behaviour is more likely to occur in order to avoid negative / unpleasant consequences, or to take away something negative.
Define punishment as a means of operant conditioning
A behaviour is less likely to occur due to experiencing negative consequences in the past
Who’s work underpinned the principles of operant conditioning?
Thorndike (1898)
What was Thorndike’s (1898) experiment of operant conditioning?
He observed how cats managed to escape a puzzle box -> operant conditioning, ‘Law Of Effect’
Name the psychologist who was influenced by Thorndike’s work and was a major force in the behaviourism movement
Skinner
What did Skinner’s work on behaviourism focus on?
Lab experiments with animals
What did Skinner investigate?
How rewards and punishments can shape behaviour.
The Skinner box was designed to observe animal responses in contrived situations.
He also conducted experiments on humans.
What is continuous reinforcement?
What are the characteristics of it?
Every single response is reinforced.
- > low but steady response rate
- > very low resistance to extinction - it’s the quickest way to bring about extinction.
What is fixed interval reinforcement?
What are the characteristics of it?
Reinforcement is given every fixed time period if the response has occurred at least once.
- > low overall response, response rate speeds up as next reinforcement becomes available.
- > fairly low resistance to extinction - extinction occurs quite quickly.
What is variable internal reinforcement?
What are the characteristics of it?
A reinforcement is given eg on average every 30 seconds but it varies so the interval is unpredictable.
- > quite stable response rate but may increase as more time elapses from last reinforcement.
- > very high resistance to extinction - extinction occurs very slowly.
What is fixed ratio reinforcement?
What are the characteristics of it?
A reinforcement is given for a fixed number of responses (not time related).
- > a pause after each reinforcement, but a high rate of responding leading up to next reinforcement.
- > fairly low resistance to extinction - extinction occurs quite quickly.
What is variable ratio reinforcement?
What are the characteristics of it?
A reinforcement is given on average eg every 10 responses but the number varies.
- > very high and steady response rate.
- > very high resistance to extinction - most resistance of all schedules.
Give an example of continuous reinforcement
Eg receiving a tip every time you serve a customer
Give an example of fixed interval reinforcement
Eg being paid regularly, every week/month
Give an example of variable interval reinforcement
Eg a self employed person may receive payment irregularly depending on when the customer pays
Give an example of fixed ratio reinforcement
Eg piece work - the more work done, the more money earned
Give an example of variable ratio reinforcement
Eg gambling
Who decided the ABC process of operant conditioning?
Skinner
What is Skinner’s ABC if operant conditioning?
To analyse any behaviour it is necessary to consider …
Antecedents.
Behaviours.
Consequences.
Give the positive evaluations of behaviourism
• Scientific credibility
- > measurement of observable behaviour.
- > highly controlled labs.
- > emphasised importance of objectivity and replicability.
• Real life application
- > principles of conditioning -> help to reduce negative behaviour encourage positive behaviour.
- > operant conditioning used successfully in prisons, schools, psychiatric wards.
- > classical conditioning treats phobias by systematic desensitisation.
Give the negative evaluations of behaviourism
• Mechanistic view of behaviour
- > assumes animals / humans are passive and machinelike responders to their environment.
- > not interested in cognitive processes as they’re not observable.
- > deterministic - we have no control over our behaviour.
- > ignores free will, doesn’t explain spontaneous behaviour.
- > conditioning may apply more to animals.
• Use of animals
- > high degree of control but unfair, stressful confinions.
- > harsh conditions may affect behaviour.
- > animals may not generalise to humans
Define social learning theory
A way of explaining behaviour that includes both direct and indirect reinforcement, combining learning theory with the role of cognitive factors.
What does social learning theory assume that people learn by?
By observing and imitating others within a social context.
Define imitation
Copying the behaviours of others
Define identification
When an observer associates themselves with the role model and wants to be like the role model.
Define modelling
The precise demonstration of a specific behaviour that may be imitated by an observer.
Define vicarious reinforcement
Reinforcement which is not directly experienced but occurs through observing someone else being reinforced for a behaviour.
This is a key factor in imitation.
Define mediational processes
Cognitive factors that influence learning and come between stimulus and response
Name the mediational processes that Bandura identified
Attention
Retention
Motor reproduction
Motivation
Name the researcher in investigated social learning theory
Bandura (1961)
State the aims of Bandura’s (1961) experiment on social learning theory
- To examine the effect of the continual influence of the model.
- To examine if sex of the model influenced same/opposite sex RPs to a differing degree.
Name the stages of Bandura’s (1961) experiment on social learning theory
- Modelling.
- Mild aggression arousal.
- Observation.
Describe stage 1 of Bandura’s (1961) experiment on social learning theory.
Modelling…
• Child was put into a room with the model.
• Role model either showed aggressive behaviour or non-aggressive behaviour towards a Bobo-doll.
-> hit the doll with a hammer and shouted abuse at it.
• 10 minutes.
Describe stage 2 of Bandura’s (1961) experiment on social learning theory.
Mild aggression arousal…
• Child was taken into another room.
• Told they cannot play with any of the toys in the room.
• 2 minutes.
Describe stage 3 of Bandura’s (1961) experiment on social learning theory.
Observation... • Child taken into a third room. • Told they can play with the toys. -> bobo doll, Mallet, guns etc / dolls, crayons, plastic farm. • 20 Minutes.
What were the results of Bandura’s (1961) experiment on social learning theory?
- Children who observed aggressive behaviour from the role model acted more aggressively themselves.
- Boys showed more aggression than girls.
- Greater level of imitation when child was same gender as model.
What was the sample of participants like in Bandura’s (1961) experiment on social learning theory?
36 males, 36 females.
Aged 37-69 months -> average of 4 years old.
Bandura + Walters (1963) did a variation of the original experiment on social learning theory.
What did they change?
The children watched videos of the role models behaviour towards a Bobo-doll.
The videos included vicarious reinforcement -> positive, negative and nothing control.
What were the results of Bandura + Walter’s (1963) experiment on social learning theory?
Children who observed positive vicarious reinforcement towards the role model demonstrating aggressive behaviour -> acted more aggressively themselves.
No vicarious reinforcement -> 2nd most aggressive.
Negative vicarious reinforcement -> least aggressive.
Give the positive evaluations of social learning theory
• Shows the importance of cognitive factors in learning.
-> classical/operant conditioning aren’t realistically going to be the only form of learning, or learning would be too laborious and hazardous.
• SLT explains cultural differences in behaviour.
-> by observing individuals around you, media etc -> gender roles.
• Less deterministic than behaviourist approach.
-> Bandura suggests we have some free will in the behaviours we choose to perform.
Give the negative evaluations of social learning theory.
• Evidence from lab studies.
-> too artificial -> can’t generalise behaviour to daily life.
-> main purpose of bobo doll is to hit it -> lowers validity.
-> demand characteristics,
• Doesn’t take into account biological factors.
-> boys may be more aggressive than girls due to testosterone levels -> linked with aggression.
