Memory Flashcards
Baddeley (1966)?
Coding in STM and LTM.
Jacobs (1887)?
Capacity in STM =
Participants could repeat 9.3 numbers and 7.3 letters.
Miller (1956)?
Capacity in STM =
7+/-2 items.
Peterson and Peterson (1959)?
Duration of STM =
18-30 seconds.
Bahrick et al. (1975)?
Duration of LTM =
Recognition/free recall test of year book –> 48 years.
Cowan (2001)?
Miller may have overestimated STM capacity =
STM about 4 items –> more towards lower end of Miller’s estimate.
Shepard (1967)?
Bahrick’ meaningful memories have high external validity =
Lab studies with meaningless memories –> recall rates were lower.
Who developed the MSM?
Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968).
Shallice and Warrington (1970)?
Evidence for MSM suggests more than one STM =
KF’s digit span was poor when read aloud, but better recall when read to himself.
Craik and Watkins (1973)?
Two types of rehearsal = MSM doesn’t explain elaborative =
- elaborative = link info to existing knowledge to keep info in LTM.
Case studies that support the episodic memory?
HM and Clive Wearing =
Both had difficulty recalling events, but semantic wasn’t affected (HM didn’t recall stroking a ‘dog’, but didn’t need the concept of ‘dog’ explained to him).
Tulving et al. (1994)?
Used PET scans on participants performing tasks =
- episodic and semantic memories in prefrontal cortex.
- episodic in left, semantic in right.
Belleville at al. (2006)?
Episodic memories can be improved in older people with milder cognitive impairments =
Training led to improvements.
Cohen and Squire (1980)?
Declarative memory (one type of LTM store) =
Episodic and semantic memories are declarative (recalled consciously), but procedural memory is distinctly different.
Who developed the WMM?
Baddeley and Hitch (1974).
When/who added the episodic buffer to the WMM?
Baddeley (2000).
Who subdivided the Visio-spatial sketch pad?
Logie (1995) =
- visual cache = stores visual data.
- inner scribe = records arrangement of objects in visual field.
What did Shallice and Warrington find that support the separate STM stores in the WMM?
KF =
- poor STM ability on verbal info.
- but could process visual info normally.
- only phonological loop had been damaged.
What study supports the Visio-spatial sketch pad?
Baddeley et al. (1975) =
Participants had more difficulty doing 2 visual tasks, than one visual and one verbal.
What study supports the phonological loop?
Baddeley et al. (1975) =
Word length effect –> people have more difficulty remembering long words than short words (limited space for rehearsal in articulately process).
Braver et al. (1997)?
Brain scans support CE =
- identified in prefrontal cortex, as task became more difficult, the more it lit up (CE has to work harder) –> support of CE.
Who did a study to support interference theory?
McGeoch and McDonald (1931) (effects of similarity) =
When asked to remember a list of words, the second list implicated recall =
- synonyms (second list) produced worst recall.
What real-life studies support the interference explanation of forgetting?
Baddeley and Hitch (1977) =
- rugby players asked to recall teams they played, week by week,.
- recall depended on the number of games played in between, not how long ago it was - recall supported interference.
Tulving and Psotka (1971)?
Interference may be overcome using cues =
- participants given a list of 24 words, in 6 categories.
- recall got worse as additional list was learned, but when cue was given (name of category), recall rose again.
What did Tulving (1983) find about cues in recall?
Recall was better when the same cues were used during encoding (when learned) and retrieval (when recalling).
- closer the retrieval cue to the original one, the better recall.
Who did the ‘context-dependent forgetting’ study?
Godden and Baddeley (1975) =
- accurate recall was 40% higher when the environmental contexts of learning (under-water and on land) matched.
What evidence supports the retrieval failure explanation of forgetting?
1) . Godden and Baddeley (1975).
2) . Eysenck (2010) =
Suggest retrieval failure is the main reason for forgetting in LTM.
What did Baddeley say about the difference in the contexts of learning on the amount of retrieval failure?
For retrieval failure to take effect, the contexts had to be completely different (e.g. underwater and on-land).
- learning something in one room and remembering in the other wont have much retrieval failure.
What are the 2 key studies into misleading questions of EWT?
1). Lofts and Palmer (film of car accidents) =
Depending on the verb used (e.g smashed, contacted), speed varied (31.8mph - 40.5mph).
2) . Gabbert et al. (2003) (post-event discussion) =
- participants who discussed a video of the crime resulted in 71% mistaken recall.
- no mistakes in recall of participants who didn’t discuss the crime.
What did Loftus (1975) say about police using misleading questions?
It can have such an effect on recall, that they should be more careful.
Yuille and Cutshall (1986)?
Different experiences of recall from watching a real crime =
- witnesses of a real robbery had accurate recall after 4 months.
Anastasi and Rhodes (2006)?
Older people less accurate than younger people in EWT.
- all age groups more accurate when identifying their own age group.
Foster et al. (1994)?
EWT research studies lack external validity =
- recall from real eyewitnesses have real consequences, this isn’t the same in research studies.
- eyewitnesses use their memory more in order for a successful conviction.
Key studies into anxiety of ETW?
1) . Johnson and Scott (1976) =
- participants in waiting room seen man with (1) pen + grease, (2) paper knife + blood.
- low identification of high anxiety condition.
2) . Yuille and Cutshall (1986) =
- after 5 months of a real-life crime, eyewitnesses were still accurate with the effects of anxiety present of the time of the crime.
Who explains the contradictory evidence of anxiety in EWT?
1). Yerkes and Dodson (1908) =
relationship between performance and stress is curvillinear, rather than linear.
2). Deffenbacher (1983) =
lower levels of anxiety produced lower recall. Recall increases as anxiety increases.
Who criticises Johnson and Scott’s study?
Pickel (1998) =
people may focus on a weapon as they are surprised, not scared (more unusual item = more anxiety).
Fisher and Geiselman (1992)?
Cognitive interview (CI) =
- EWT could be improved if police use techniques based on psychological insights into how memory works (rapport).
Fisher et al. (1987)?
Developed additional elements of CI.
Who said that some elements of the full CI are useful?
Milne and Bull (2002) =
each individual element of CI was equally valuable.
Who supports the effectiveness of the enhanced CI?
Kohnken et al. (1999) =
meta-analysis –> CI proved consistently more correct info than standard interviews used by the police.
Who said the CI is time-consuming?
Kebbell and Wagstaff (1997) =
CI also requires special training and many forces haven’t been able to provide more than a few hours.
