Memory

Question 1

Baddeley (1966)?

Answer 1

Coding in STM and LTM.

Question 2

Jacobs (1887)?

Answer 2

Capacity in STM =

Participants could repeat 9.3 numbers and 7.3 letters.

Question 3

Miller (1956)?

Answer 3

Capacity in STM =

7+/-2 items.

Question 4

Peterson and Peterson (1959)?

Answer 4

Duration of STM =

18-30 seconds.

Question 5

Bahrick et al. (1975)?

Answer 5

Duration of LTM =

Recognition/free recall test of year book –> 48 years.

Question 6

Cowan (2001)?

Answer 6

Miller may have overestimated STM capacity =

STM about 4 items –> more towards lower end of Miller’s estimate.

Question 7

Shepard (1967)?

Answer 7

Bahrick’ meaningful memories have high external validity =

Lab studies with meaningless memories –> recall rates were lower.

Question 8

Who developed the MSM?

Answer 8

Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968).

Question 9

Shallice and Warrington (1970)?

Answer 9

Evidence for MSM suggests more than one STM =

KF’s digit span was poor when read aloud, but better recall when read to himself.

Question 10

Craik and Watkins (1973)?

Answer 10

Two types of rehearsal = MSM doesn’t explain elaborative =

• elaborative = link info to existing knowledge to keep info in LTM.

Question 11

Case studies that support the episodic memory?

Answer 11

HM and Clive Wearing =

Both had difficulty recalling events, but semantic wasn’t affected (HM didn’t recall stroking a ‘dog’, but didn’t need the concept of ‘dog’ explained to him).

Question 12

Tulving et al. (1994)?

Answer 12

Used PET scans on participants performing tasks =

• episodic and semantic memories in prefrontal cortex.
• episodic in left, semantic in right.

Question 13

Belleville at al. (2006)?

Answer 13

Episodic memories can be improved in older people with milder cognitive impairments =

Training led to improvements.

Question 14

Cohen and Squire (1980)?

Answer 14

Declarative memory (one type of LTM store) =

Episodic and semantic memories are declarative (recalled consciously), but procedural memory is distinctly different.

Question 15

Who developed the WMM?

Answer 15

Baddeley and Hitch (1974).

Question 16

When/who added the episodic buffer to the WMM?

Answer 16

Baddeley (2000).

Question 17

Who subdivided the Visio-spatial sketch pad?

Answer 17

Logie (1995) =

• visual cache = stores visual data.
• inner scribe = records arrangement of objects in visual field.

Question 18

What did Shallice and Warrington find that support the separate STM stores in the WMM?

Answer 18

KF =

• poor STM ability on verbal info.
• but could process visual info normally.
• only phonological loop had been damaged.

Question 19

What study supports the Visio-spatial sketch pad?

Answer 19

Baddeley et al. (1975) =

Participants had more difficulty doing 2 visual tasks, than one visual and one verbal.

Question 20

What study supports the phonological loop?

Answer 20

Baddeley et al. (1975) =

Word length effect –> people have more difficulty remembering long words than short words (limited space for rehearsal in articulately process).

Question 21

Braver et al. (1997)?

Answer 21

Brain scans support CE =

• identified in prefrontal cortex, as task became more difficult, the more it lit up (CE has to work harder) –> support of CE.

Question 22

Who did a study to support interference theory?

Answer 22

McGeoch and McDonald (1931) (effects of similarity) =

When asked to remember a list of words, the second list implicated recall =

• synonyms (second list) produced worst recall.

Question 23

What real-life studies support the interference explanation of forgetting?

Answer 23

Baddeley and Hitch (1977) =

• rugby players asked to recall teams they played, week by week,.
• recall depended on the number of games played in between, not how long ago it was - recall supported interference.

Question 24

Tulving and Psotka (1971)?

Answer 24

Interference may be overcome using cues =

• participants given a list of 24 words, in 6 categories.
• recall got worse as additional list was learned, but when cue was given (name of category), recall rose again.

Question 25

What did Tulving (1983) find about cues in recall?

Answer 25

Recall was better when the same cues were used during encoding (when learned) and retrieval (when recalling).

• closer the retrieval cue to the original one, the better recall.

Question 26

Who did the ‘context-dependent forgetting’ study?

Answer 26

Godden and Baddeley (1975) =

• accurate recall was 40% higher when the environmental contexts of learning (under-water and on land) matched.

Question 27

What evidence supports the retrieval failure explanation of forgetting?

Answer 27

1) . Godden and Baddeley (1975).
2) . Eysenck (2010) =

Suggest retrieval failure is the main reason for forgetting in LTM.

Question 28

What did Baddeley say about the difference in the contexts of learning on the amount of retrieval failure?

Answer 28

For retrieval failure to take effect, the contexts had to be completely different (e.g. underwater and on-land).

• learning something in one room and remembering in the other wont have much retrieval failure.

Question 29

What are the 2 key studies into misleading questions of EWT?

Answer 29

1). Lofts and Palmer (film of car accidents) =

Depending on the verb used (e.g smashed, contacted), speed varied (31.8mph - 40.5mph).

2) . Gabbert et al. (2003) (post-event discussion) =
- participants who discussed a video of the crime resulted in 71% mistaken recall.
- no mistakes in recall of participants who didn’t discuss the crime.

Question 30

What did Loftus (1975) say about police using misleading questions?

Answer 30

It can have such an effect on recall, that they should be more careful.

Question 31

Yuille and Cutshall (1986)?

Answer 31

Different experiences of recall from watching a real crime =

• witnesses of a real robbery had accurate recall after 4 months.

Question 32

Anastasi and Rhodes (2006)?

Answer 32

Older people less accurate than younger people in EWT.

• all age groups more accurate when identifying their own age group.

Question 33

Foster et al. (1994)?

Answer 33

EWT research studies lack external validity =

• recall from real eyewitnesses have real consequences, this isn’t the same in research studies.
• eyewitnesses use their memory more in order for a successful conviction.

Question 34

Key studies into anxiety of ETW?

Answer 34

1) . Johnson and Scott (1976) =
- participants in waiting room seen man with (1) pen + grease, (2) paper knife + blood.
- low identification of high anxiety condition.
2) . Yuille and Cutshall (1986) =
- after 5 months of a real-life crime, eyewitnesses were still accurate with the effects of anxiety present of the time of the crime.

Question 35

Who explains the contradictory evidence of anxiety in EWT?

Answer 35

1). Yerkes and Dodson (1908) =

relationship between performance and stress is curvillinear, rather than linear.

2). Deffenbacher (1983) =

lower levels of anxiety produced lower recall. Recall increases as anxiety increases.

Question 36

Who criticises Johnson and Scott’s study?

Answer 36

Pickel (1998) =

people may focus on a weapon as they are surprised, not scared (more unusual item = more anxiety).

Question 37

Fisher and Geiselman (1992)?

Answer 37

Cognitive interview (CI) =

• EWT could be improved if police use techniques based on psychological insights into how memory works (rapport).

Question 38

Fisher et al. (1987)?

Answer 38

Developed additional elements of CI.

Question 39

Who said that some elements of the full CI are useful?

Answer 39

Milne and Bull (2002) =

each individual element of CI was equally valuable.

Question 40

Who supports the effectiveness of the enhanced CI?

Answer 40

Kohnken et al. (1999) =

meta-analysis –> CI proved consistently more correct info than standard interviews used by the police.

Question 41

Who said the CI is time-consuming?

Answer 41

Kebbell and Wagstaff (1997) =

CI also requires special training and many forces haven’t been able to provide more than a few hours.