Memory

Question 1

Joseph Jacobs

Answer 1

Capacity of STM
Jacobs reads increasing strings of numbers for ppts to recall in correct order. most no. remembered in a sequence is the digit span
mean span for mo. is 9.3 and letters is 7.3 as there are 26 letters and 9 numbers
capacity is bigger for numbers than letters

Question 2

George Miller

Answer 2

reviewed psychological research
people can’s count more than 7 dots flashed onto a screen and the same was true when recalling musical notes, letters and words. people can recall 5 words as easily as 5 letters
span of immediate memory is about 7 items (7+-2)
chunking allows us to remember more

Question 3

Peterson and Peterson

Answer 3

Duration of STM
8 trials - each P given consonant syllable and 3 digit number (THX 521).
asked to recall after 3s for first trail then after 6,9,12,18
during interval p’s count backwards from 3 digit number
found 90% correct over 3 secs, 20% correct after 9 secs, 2% correct after 18 secs
STM has short duration (less than 18 secs) as long as verbal rehearsal prevented

Question 4

Alan Baddeley

Answer 4

find out how memory is coded depending on which store is used
four groups of p’s give words
group 1 = acoustically similar
group 2 = acoustically dissimilar
group 3 = semantically similar
group 4 = semantically dissimilar
P’s recall words in correct order directly after hearing (STM) or 20 mins later (LTM)
found
difficult to remember acoustically similar in STM but easy in LTM
Easy to remember semantically similar in STM but not in LTM
STM = encoded acoustically
LTM = encoded semantically

Question 5

Bahrick et al

Answer 5

duration on LTM
tested 400 people on memory of class mates
50 photos of p's high school year book to see is recognised
then free recall rest, list names in graduating class
15 yrs after graduation = 90% correct in recognition
after 48 yrs = 70% in recognition
15 yrs = 60% in free recall
After 48yrs = 50%  in free recall
LTM can have a very long duration

Question 6

STM

Answer 6

memory for events in the present or immediate past

Question 7

LTM

Answer 7

memory for evens that happened in the more distant past

Question 8

Capacity

Answer 8

measure of how much can be held in memory

Question 9

Duration

Answer 9

measure of how long a memory lasts before it is no longer available

Question 10

Coding

Answer 10

way in which information is changed to that is can be stored in memory

Question 11

Explicit Memory

Answer 11

type of LTM

knowing that

Question 12

Implicit Memory

Answer 12

type of LTM

know how

Question 13

Episodic Memory

Answer 13

knowing that
occurs as part of a sequence
memories of personal experiences
three main elements
1) details of the event 
2) context 
3) emotion felt 
must make a conscious effort to recall them

Question 14

Semantic Memory

Answer 14

knowing that
knowledge of the world which is shared by everyone
related to things like function of objects and appropriated behaviour
less personal

Question 15

Procedural Memory

Answer 15

knowing how
e.g riding a bike
acquired through repetition and practice
we’re not aware of recalling them as they’re automatic

Question 16

inference

Answer 16

Explanation for forgetting
occurs when two pieces of info are in conflict
forgetting occurs In LTM due to lack of access to memories that are actually available

Question 17

Proactive Inference

Answer 17

old information interferes with new info
older memories disrupts a newer one
e.g. teacher learns many names in past and can’t remember names of current class

Question 18

Retroactive inference

Answer 18

new info interferes with old info

new memory disrupts an older one

Question 19

McGeoch and McDonald

Answer 19

research effects of similarity
p’s lean list of words to 100% accuracy and were given a new list to learn
Group 1 - synonyms - words held same meaning to originals
Group 2 - antonyms - words had opposite meaning to originals
Group 3 - unrelated words
Group 4 - nonsense syllables
Group 5 - three digit numbers
Group 6 - control group, no new list
synonyms produced worst recall
inference strongest when memories are similar

Question 20

Baddeley and Hitch

Answer 20

inference in everyday settings
rugby team with some playing in every game of the season and other only some. same time intervals form beginning to end of season but intervening games differed. asked to recall names of team playing against
team names recalled decreases as number of games played increases
supports inference

Question 21

Tulving and Psotka

Answer 21

see if retrieval cues can overcome inference affects
P’s given 6 lists of 24 words each list organised into 6 categories but P’s not told categories
recall 70% for 1st list, but fell as more lists learnt (retroactive interference)
if given a cue recall increased
forgetting may not be due to interference but due to retrieval failure as info there just needed reminders

Question 22

Retrieval Failure

Answer 22

When info is first placed in memory, associated cues are stored at the same time
if cues are available at time of recall, you might not be able to access memories that are actually there

Question 23

Encoding Specificity principle

Answer 23

cues help retrieval if some cues are present at encoding and at retrieval
the closer the retrieval cue to the original cue the better the cue works
some cues aer linked to the material in a meaningful way
other cues are encoded at the time of learning but not in a meaningful way

Question 24

Context - dependent forgetting

Answer 24

Memory retrieval is dependent on external environmental cues (weather of place)

Question 25

State - dependent forgetting

Answer 25

Memory retrieval is dependant on internal cues, state of mind (feeling upset, being drunk)

Question 26

Goddan and Baddeley

Answer 26

see if environment can work as a cue/effect contextual cues
scuba divers learnt set of words either on land of in water and recalled them either on land or in water 4 experimental conditions
highest recall when initial context matched recall environment
suggests familiar things in environment acted as cues

Question 27

Tulving and Pearlstone

Answer 27

Demonstrate value of retrieval cues
P’s learn 48 words belonging in categories shown as ‘category-word’. all words learnt with category. some participants asked to free recall and then cued recall where category reminded them
suggests cues being explicitly of implicitly encoded at time of learning and have meaningful link with words learnt

Question 28

Goodwin et al

Answer 28

see if mental state at time of learning acts as a cue
asked males volunteers to remember lists of words when either drunk or sober and asked them to recall either drunk or sober
recall higher with same mental state learnt in
suggests that mental state at time of learning acts as a cue

Question 29

Loftus and Palmer (Study 1) - aim

Answer 29

consider whether a leading question effects memory for events

Question 30

Loftus and Palmer (Study 1) - procedure

Answer 30

45 p’s shown 7 films of different traffic accidents
then given questionnaire including one critical question ‘How fast were the cars going when them hit/smashed/collided/bumped/contacted each other?’

Question 31

Loftus and Palmer (Study 1) - results

Answer 31

estimated speed varied from 31.8 - 40.8mph depending on verb used

Question 32

Loftus and Palmer (Study 1) - conclusion

Answer 32

shows that the more brutal the verb the fast the p’s though the car was going
therefore suggesting leading q’s effect the answer
however unsure if it changed their memory or just influence the answer

Question 33

Loftus and Palmer (Study 2) - aim

Answer 33

consider whether leading question is biasing a person’s response or if it may actually be causing the info to be altered before it is stored

Question 34

Loftus and Palmer (Study 2) - procedure

Answer 34

new set of p’s divided into 3 groups and shown car accident film with no broken glass and asked the same Q about speed
1 week later asked another series of 10 Q’s including one critical Q
- Did you see any broken glass?

Question 35

Loftus and Palmer (Study 2) - results

Answer 35

when Q asked with words ‘smashed’ rather than ‘hit’ believed to have seen glass

Question 36

Loftus and Palmer (Study 2) - conclusion

Answer 36

leading questions change memory of events

Question 37

Gabbert et al

Answer 37

find out if co-witnesses will reach agreement view of what happened
P’s put in pairs
each pair split in tow to watch a different video of same vent
condition 1 = discuss what seen with partner before recalling
condition 2 = no discussion
condition 1 = 71% of P’s wrongly recalled items only leant in discussion not actually seen
post-event discussion leads to changes in memory so people recollection match up - called memory conformity

Question 38

Johnson and Scott

Answer 38

investigate whether weapon focus effect reduces the accuracy of EWT
P’s sat in waiting room and heard an argument
then saw a man running past with a pen covered in grease (love anxiety) or a knife (high anxiety)
asked to identify man form a set of photos
49% in low anxiety correctly identified man
33% in weapon focus effect condition (knife)
anxiety reduces EWT accuracy therefore supporting weapon focus effect

Question 39

Christianson and Hubinette

Answer 39

consider effects of high vs low anxiety on EWT
Q’ed 58 real witnesses to a bank robbery 4-15 months after.
witnesses either bank teller (high anxiety) or bystander (low Anxiety)
all had good memory of event 75% accuracy
witnesses classed as high anxiety had best recall
the higher the anxiety level the better the recall

Question 40

Pickel - aim

Answer 40

instigate if reduced anxiety in identification is due to weapon focus effect is the result of anxiety of surprise

Question 41

Pickel - procedure

Answer 41

robber ran through a public place carrying either a gun (high threat and surprise), a chicken (low threat and high surprise), scissors (high threat and low surprise) or a wallet (low on both) and the P’s were asked to identify the robber

Question 42

Pickel - Findings

Answer 42

identification least accurate in high surprise rather than high threat

Question 43

Pickel - conclusion

Answer 43

Anxiety caused no effect on accuracy of identification but surprise did
challenges weapon focus effect

Question 44

Fisher and Geiselman

Answer 44

Claimed EWT can be improved if police use techniques based on psychological insights into how memory works
cognitive interview

Question 45

Cognitive interview

Answer 45

PROD
Report everything 
Reinstate the context 
Reverse order
Change perspective