Memory

Question 1

flashbulb memory

Answer 1

a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event

Question 2

encoding

Answer 2

the process of getting information into the memory system — for example, by extracting meaning

Question 3

storage

Answer 3

the process of retaining encoded information over time

Question 4

retrieval

Answer 4

the process of getting information out of memory storage

Question 5

sensory memory

Answer 5

the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system

Question 6

short-term memory

Answer 6

briefly activated memory of a few items (such as digits of a phone number while calling) that is later stored or forgotten

Question 7

long-term memory

Answer 7

the relatively permanent and limitless archive of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences

Question 8

working memory

Answer 8

a newer understanding of short-term memory; conscious, active processing of both (1) incoming sensory information, and (2) information retrieved from long-term memory

Question 9

episodic memory

Answer 9

explicit memory of personally experienced events; one of our two conscious memory systems (the other is semantic memory)

Question 10

spacing effect

Answer 10

the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice

Question 11

serial position effect

Answer 11

our tendency to recall best the last items in a list initially (a recency effect) and the first items in a list after a delay (a primacy effect)

Question 12

mnemonics

Answer 12

memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices

Question 13

chunking

Answer 13

organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically

Question 14

iconic memory

Answer 14

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second

Question 15

echoic memory

Answer 15

a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds

Question 16

implicit memory

Answer 16

retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection. (Also called nondeclarative memory.)

Question 17

explicit memory

Answer 17

retention of facts and experiences that we can consciously know and “declare.” (Also called declarative memory.)

Question 18

recall

Answer 18

a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test

Question 19

recognition

Answer 19

a measure of memory in which the person identifies items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test

Question 20

relearning

Answer 20

a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material again

Question 21

proactive interference

Answer 21

the forward-acting disruptive effect of older learning on the recall of new information

Question 22

retroactive interference

Answer 22

the backward-acting disruptive effect of newer learning on the recall of old information

Question 23

repression

Answer 23

in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories

Question 24

misinformation effect

Answer 24

occurs when a memory has been corrupted by misleading information

Question 25

cognition

Answer 25

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

Question 26

concepts

Answer 26

a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people

Question 27

prototypes

Answer 27

a mental image or best example of a category. Matching new items to a prototype provides a quick and easy method for sorting items into categories (as when comparing feathered creatures to a prototypical bird, such as a crow)

Question 28

algorithm

Answer 28

a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem. Contrasts with the usually speedier — but also more error-prone — use of heuristics

Question 29

heuristic

Answer 29

a simple thinking strategy — a mental shortcut — that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone than an algorithm

Question 30

confirmation bias

Answer 30

a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence

Question 31

mental set

Answer 31

a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past

Question 32

representativeness heuristic

Answer 32

judging the likelihood of events in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information

Question 33

availability heuristic

Answer 33

judging the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common

Question 34

overconfidence

Answer 34

the tendency to be more confident than correct — to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments

Question 35

framing

Answer 35

the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments

Question 36

belief perseverance

Answer 36

the persistence of one’s initial conceptions even after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited

Question 37

procedural memory

Answer 37

the type of memory that we use to do everyday tasks like tying our shoes or riding a bike. These activities do not require our conscious awareness of our previous attempts.

Question 38

rehearsal

Answer 38

the process of repeatedly practicing material so that it can be remembered. It’s a cognitive strategy that helps us retain information over time.

Question 39

Ebbinghaus research on memory

Answer 39

he found that within an hour of learning new information people tend to forget up to 50% of it. Within 24 hours, this can increase to 70%. By the end of the week, people tend to retain only about 25% of what they’ve learned.

Question 40

visual encoding

Answer 40

the process of converting images and visual sensory information to memory stored in the brain

Question 41

acoustic encoding

Answer 41

the process of encoding sounds, actual words, and other auditory input for storage and retrieval

Question 42

semantic encoding

Answer 42

the process of converting sensory input into meaningful, long-term memories by associating new information with existing knowledge and experiences. It is a type of deep processing that focuses on the meaning of information rather than its sensory or structural characteristics.

Question 43

eidetic memory

Answer 43

the ability to recall an image from memory with high precision—at least for a brief period of time—after seeing it only once and without using a mnemonic device.

Question 44

functional fixedness

Answer 44

the perceived inability of someone to use an object for something other than its original intended purpose. Functional fixedness is a type of cognitive bias.