memory Flashcards
Define ‘Sensation’
The detection of environmental stimuli by the sense organs and the conversion of sensory information to electrochemical energy
Name and describe the first step of the sensation process
Reception: Detection of sensory information in sense organs of body by sensory receptors
Give two examples of physical stimuli
Sound waves and light
Name and describe the second step of the sensation process
Transduction: Changing of sensory information into electrochemical energy
Name and describe the third step of the sensation process
Transmission: Movement of electrochemical energy from sensory receptors to the brain for interpreting
What are sensory organs?
Specialised organs in body containing sensory neurons functioning as sensory receptors
What are sensory receptors?
Specialised cells in body detecting sensory info
What is electrochemical energy?
The conversion of electrical energy to chemical energy or vice versa.
Define ‘Perception’
The mental representation that the brain creates using information detected by the senses
Outline the steps from sensation to perception
Reception, Transduction, Transmission, Selection, Organisation, Interpretation
Name and describe the first step of the perception process
Selection: Crucial features of information are selected for further processing and insignificant content is disregarded
Name and describe the second step of the perception process
Organisation: Selected information is categorised, allowing for arrangement of meaningful patterns
Name and describe the third step of the perception process
Interpretation: Meaning assigned to the groups of patterns
Explain the difference between sensation and perception processing
Sensation is the information that came from senses, Perception is interpreting the information from senses
Define ‘Selective Attention’
Process of concentrating on chosen stimuli while disregarding others
Define ‘Divided Attention’
Ability to concentrate on two or more stimuli simultaneously
What is the ‘Cocktail Party Effect’? (CPE)
Ability for an individual to be aware of multiple conversations occurring around them at the same time using divided attention, as well as using selective attention, where their focus is on one conversation and the rest are neglected.
What is the CPE an example of?
Selective attention
Who studied CPE and in what year?
Cherry, 1953
Name and describe the first process of memory
Storage: retention of information within the stores of memory
Name and describe the second process of memory
Retrieval: movement of information from the long-term store of memory to conscious awareness
Name and describe the third process of memory
Encoding: the form in which information is stored
Describe the ‘Multi-Store Model of Memory’
Information flows through three storage systems
What is sensory memory’s duration?
0.5-5 seconds
Almost instantaneous
What is sensory memory’s storage?
Unlimited
Describe the encoding of sensory memory
Visual and acoustic
Iconic: visual
Echoic: acoustic
Define and explain the two types of sensory memory
Iconic: visual information is sent to occipital lobe
Echoic: auditory information is sent to temporal lobe
What is short term memory’s duration?
15-30 seconds
What is short term memory’s storage?
Limited unless information is rehearsed, 5-9 pieces of information at a time
Describe the encoding of short term memory
Mainly acoustic
What is long term memory’s duration?
Relatively permanent
What is long term memory’s storage?
Unlimited
Describe the encoding of long term memory
Elaborative rehearsal: involves creating an association/link between the parks of the procedure.
What are the two divisions of long-term memory?
Explicit/Declarative: conscious, facts, events
Implicit/Procedural: unconscious, skills, tasks
What are the two divisions of Declarative memory?
Episodic: Past experiences
Semantic: Facts, concepts, information
What is the function of procedural memory?
The unconscious memory of how to perform an action
What is an example of procedural memory?
How to swim, how to ride a bike
What is the function of declarative memory?
The conscious memory of facts and experiences
In the ‘Working Model of Memory’, what controls the three slave systems?
Central Executive (coordinates and controls the information)
Describe the phonological loop slave system
A component of the working memory model that temporarily stores and processes auditory information
Describe the visio-spatial sketchpad slave system
A component of the working memory model that stores and manipulates visual and spatial information
Describe the episodic buffer slave system
A component of the working memory model that temporarily stores consolidated information from the three slave systems
What does the ‘Working Memory Model’ demonstrate?
Short term memory is a dynamic storage system capable of simultaneously holding multiple pieces of information
Describe the role of the hippocampus in formation of memory
Formation of declarative memories
Describe the role of the cerebellum in the formation of memories
Formation of procedural memories
Describe the role of the amygdala in the formation of memories
Formation of memories associated with fear
Define ‘Retrieval failure’
The inability to consciously recall information stored in long term store due to absence of retrieval cues that could trigger memory retrieval
Define ‘Proactive interference’
Where previously stored information interferes with retrieval of new learning
Define ‘Retroactive interference’
Where new information interferes with what has been previously stored
Define ‘Motivated forgetting’
Intentional or unintentional suppression of memories or thoughts from conscious awareness to minimise emotional distress
Define ‘Decay theory’
The fading of a memory over time. When a person encounters new information, a neurochemical memory trace is formed, and over time, this trace disintegrates leading to forgetting.
Define ‘Recall’
Retrieving information from long term memory without the provision of cues to aid
Define ‘Recognition’
Ability to identify previously stored information by matching stimuli to stored memories
Define ‘Re-learning’
Reacquiring knowledge or skills that were previously learned but may have begun to decay over time
Order the three roles of remembering from most to least sensitive
Re-learning, recognition, recall
What is the forgetting curve?
A curve showing the relationship between how much information is lost from memory over time
What is the role of the hippocampus in the storage of memories?
Memories are temporarily held in the hippocampus then moved to pre-frontal cortex
What is the role of the cerebellum in the storage of memories?
Storage of procedural memories, specifically sensorimotor skills like cutting paper with scissors
What is the role of the amygdala in the storage of memories?
Does not store memories, however it strengthens episodic memories stored in other regions of the brain
Define ‘Maintenance rehearsal’
Use of rehearsal or repetition of information to retain it for immediate use
Define ‘Elaborative rehearsal’
Use of strategies that associate material to be remembered with other retained information
Define ‘Chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE)’
A progressive brain disease associated with repeated traumatic brain injuries that causes problems with cognition and memory
How does CTE impact behaviour?
Confusion or disorientated due to memory loss
Easily agitated
How does CTE impact emotion?
Experiencing apathy
Feelings of anger
Define ‘Alzheimer’s disease’
A brain disease that involves the degeneration of neurons in regions of the brain that are involved in cognitive skills and memory formation and retrieval
What are the three key features of Alzheimer’s disease?
Neurofibrillary tangles, amyloid plaques, and neuron loss
How does Alzheimer’s disease impact behaviour?
Lost or disorientated in situations
Easily agitated
How does Alzheimer’s disease impact emotions?
Experiencing apathy
Feelings of anger
Define ‘Wernicke-Korsakoff Syndrome (WKS)’
A rare neurological disorder caused by thiamine deficiency leading to the degeneration of brain cells and characterised by difficulties forming new memories and retrieving stored memories
Define and explain the two stages of WKS
- Wernicke encephalopathy: severe yet reversible stage
- Korsakoff amnesic: chronic and irreversible stage
How does WKS impact behaviour?
Repeating same questions or stories
Easily agitated
How does WKS impact emotion?
Experiencing apathy
Feelings of anger
Describe free recall
The retrieval of as much information as possible about a specific topic in any order
What is an example of free recall?
Name the teachers that you remember from primary school
Describe serial recall
The retrieval of information in the sequence that they occurred
What is an example of serial recall?
List the order of planets in the solar system starting nearest the Sun
Describe cued recall
Provided retrieval cues, prompts and hints to help with the retrieval of memory
What is an example of cued recall?
Fill in the missing words within a sentence
Describe the two types of encoding under shallow processing and what type of rehearsal is used
Structural: physical info based on appearance
Phonemic: auditory information
E.g. Brightness and loudness
Rehearsal: maintenance
Outline the role of the hippocampus in the formation and storage of memory (4 mark question)
Assists with processing of episodic (declarative) memory (1), and spatial relationships (navigation) (1), also acts as a temporary store for short term memories (1), and transfers them into long term memory (1).
Explain neurofibrillary tangles
Abnormal accumulations of tau protein within neurons of the brain.
Another high level protein is also beta-amyloid, they clump together alongside scar tissue from deteriorated neurons to form amyloid plaques
Explain amyloid plaques
Accumulations of scar tissue formed by deteriorating neurons and clusters of beta-amyloid protein.
What regions of the brain are neurofibrillary tangles, amyloid plaques, and neuron losses prevalent in?
Hippocampus and amygdala (regions associated with formation of new memories)
Cerebral cortex (area supporting remembering, reasoning, language processing)
Explain atrophy (Alzheimers)
A decrease in size of a tissue or organ.
Becomes widespread by final stages of disease, leads to significant reduction in brain volume.
This leads to gaps/inability of neurons to pass signals.
How does Alzheimer’s disease impact memory?
Taking longer to retrieve information
Inability to create new memories
How does CTE impact memory?
Causes problems with cognition and memory
How does WKS impact memory?
Difficulties forming new memories and retrieving stored memories
Define ‘Neurological disorder’
A disorder of the nervous system affecting the brain, spinal cord and the neurons of the body.
Define ‘Nervous system’
The system that produces and relays messages between the brain, spinal cord, and the network of neurons.
Name and describe the structure that wastes away in individuals with WKS
Mammillary bodies
A pair of structures located on the side of the hypothalamus closest to the brainstem connected directly to the hippocampus and thalamus.
What was the effect of HM’s memory after removal of hippocampus and provide one example of that effect (2 mark question)
Forgot daily events almost immediately (1), such as forgetting names of people he just met or underestimating his age. (1).
What are the two types of motivated forgetting?
Psychological repression: subconscious and involuntary
Thought suppression: deliberate and conscious
