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year 12 psychology > learning > Flashcards

learning Flashcards

1
Q

Define ‘Classical Conditioning’

A

A form of learning where an existing reflex response is elicited by the repeated pairing of two unrelated stimuli

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2
Q

Define ‘Response’

A

Behaviour that emerges as a result of a stimulus

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3
Q

Define ‘Reflex response’

A

Involuntary response to a stimulus

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4
Q

Define ‘Unconditioned stimulus’

A

Stimulus with inherent ability to elicit a reflex response

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5
Q

Define ‘Neutral stimulus’

A

Stimulus when on its own does not elicit a particular response

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6
Q

Define ‘Unconditioned response’

A

The reflexive reaction to a specific unconditioned stimulus

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7
Q

Define ‘Conditioned stimulus’

A

Stimulus that elicits particular response due to learning

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8
Q

Define ‘Conditioned response’

A

Reflex response elicited by a previously neutral stimulus as a consequence of learning

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8
Q
A
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9
Q

Define ‘Stimulus discrimination’

A

When stimulus does not elicit the conditioned response because it differs significantly from original stimulus

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10
Q

Define ‘Extinction’

A

Repeated presentation of conditioned stimulus ceases to elicit response, no longer an association between conditioned and unconditioned stimulus

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11
Q

Define ‘Spontaneous recovery’

A

Sudden reappearance of previously extinct conditioned response after the conditioned stimulus has been absent for some time

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12
Q

What was the aim of the ‘Pavlov’s dog’ study?

A

To investigate classical conditioning in dogs.

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13
Q

What was the method of the ‘Pavlov’s dog’ study?

A

Subjects: Dogs
Materials: Meat powder, a bell, and a Pavlovian apparatus
Design: IV was the presentation of stimuli (food/bell/both), DV were the times at which the dogs salivated and the amount of saliva secreted.

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14
Q

What were the key findings of the ‘Pavlov’s dog’ study?

A

The dogs were able to learn to associate a neutral stimulus with a reflex response, leading to the neutral response developing into a conditioned response.

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15
Q

What were the two contributions of the ‘Pavlov’s dog’ study?

A
  • Pavlov’s empirical study presented qualitative data allowing other researchers to replicate the study and further develop the theory of classical conditioning.
  • Study provided a link between physiological and psychological processes and provided insights as to their interaction in the production of learning behaviours.
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16
Q

What were the two limitations of the ‘Pavlov’s dog’ study?

A
  • Inability to generalise results from the dogs to humans.
  • Dogs were exposed to unpleasant stimuli during experiments, causing physical and psychological harm.
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17
Q

What was the aim of the ‘Little Albert’ experiment?

A

To establish evidence for classical conditioning of emotional response.

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18
Q

What was the method of the ‘Little Albert’ experiment?

A

Participants: 11 month old Albert
Materials: White rat, a rabbit, a seal-skin coat, a Santa Claus mask, a metal pole and a hammer.
Design: IV was the exposure to various stimuli and the pairing of stimuli, DV was the observed emotional and behavioural response by the child.

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19
Q

What were three key findings of the ‘Little Albert’ experiment?

A
  • Albert was conditioned to feel fear from the sight of the rat after multiple pairings of loud noise and touching the rat.
  • Emotional transfers from the white rat to the seal-skin coat, rabbit and Santa Claus mask occurred. (The items are similar to rats = same response).
  • Classical conditioning can lead to a generalised response
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20
Q

What were the two contributions to the ‘Little Albert’ study?

A
  • Provided clear demonstration of how classical conditioning can be used to elicit a fear response.
  • Ethical concerns led to widespread debate on ways in which psychological research should be carried out and improved. (informed consent rules).
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21
Q

What were two limitations of the ‘Little Albert’ study?

A
  • It was evident Albert was psychologically harmed, and was likely to develop lasting fear toward particular stimuli.
  • True informed consent was not obtained by Albert’s mother (she was unaware of the full procedure and psychological risks).
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22
Q

Define ‘Operant Conditioning’

A

A type of learning whereby the consequence of behaviour determines whether they will be repeated or not.

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23
Q

Name and explain the first phase of operant conditioning

A

Antecedent: Internal and external conditions are present immediately prior to a particular response.
(Environmental stimulus)

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24
Q

Name and explain the second phase of operant conditioning

A

Behaviour: The observed behaviour resulting form the antecedent.
(Response/action)

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25
Q

Name and explain the third phase of operant conditioning

A

Consequence: The consequence is the outcome of behaviour.
(Outcome)

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26
Q

Define ‘Reinforcements’

A

A consequence that increased the likelihood of a behaviour repeating.

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27
Q

Define what positive reinforcement means

A

Addition of positive stimuli increases likelihood of desired behaviour being strengthened, through rewards and positive consequences.

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28
Q

What is an example of positive reinforcement?

A

Dog given treat when it sits on command.

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29
Q

Define what negative reinforcements means

A

A negative stimulus is removed when desired behaviour occurs, through use of negative consequences.

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30
Q

What is an example of negative reinforcement?

A

Reducing tightness of dogs leash when it doesn’t pull on it.

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31
Q

Define ‘Punishments’

A

A consequence that decreases the likelihood of a behaviour repeating.

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32
Q

Define what positive punishments means

A

Addition of undesirable stimuli decreases likelihood of behaviour through.

33
Q

What is an example of positive punishment?

A

Blowing whistle when dog barks at a car.

34
Q

Define what negative punishment means

A

Removal of desirable stimuli decreases likelihood of behaviour.

35
Q

What is an example of negative punishment?

A

Ignoring dog when it jumps at an individual.

36
Q

What are schedules of reinforcement assessed in terms of?

A
  1. Rate at which behaviour is informed
  2. Response rate
  3. How long it takes before behaviour becomes extinct
37
Q

Define ‘Continuous Reinforcement’

A

Instructing new behaviour to reinforce the desired behaviour each time it occurs.

38
Q

Define ‘Partial Reinforcement’

A

Strengthens the behaviour established from continuous reinforcement.

39
Q

Define ‘Fixed Ratio’

A

Reinforcement takes place following a set number of responses.

40
Q

Define ‘Fixed Interval’

A

Reinforcement takes place at fixed time intervals.

41
Q

Define ‘Variable Ratio’

A

Reinforcement takes place after an unpredictable number of responses.

42
Q

Define ‘Variable interval’

A

Reinforcement takes place at irregular time intervals.

43
Q

What is an example of ‘Fixed Ratio’?

A

Being given a free coffee after receiving six stamps on a coffee card at a cafe.

44
Q

What is an example of ‘Fixed Interval’?

A

Being paid for work fortnightly.

45
Q

What is an example of ‘Variable Ratio’?

A

Students being rewarded for the completion of homework on occasions that the teacher remembers to bring in lollies.

46
Q

What is an example of ‘Variable Intervals’?

A

Checking for your class assessment marks to be released online.

47
Q

What is the aim of the ‘Law of Effect: Thorndike 1898’ study?

A

To examine the influence reinforcement had on the behaviour of cats seeking to escape from a puzzle box in order to reach food.

48
Q

What was the method of ‘Law of Effect: Thorndike 1898’ study?

A

Subjects: 13 cats.
Materials: Puzzle boxes, food for cats, clock for timekeeping.
Design: IV was the number of times the cats were placed in puzzle boxes. DV was the length of time taken for cats toe scape from puzzle boxes.

49
Q

What were the two key findings of ‘Law of Effect: Thorndike 1898’ study?

A
  1. The cats escaped using trial and error and demonstrated operant conditioning and positive reinforcement by repeating pressing the lever to receive food.
  2. The time take for the cats to press the lever reduced the second time they were placed in the box.
50
Q

What was the contribution of ‘Law of Effect: Thorndike 1898’ study?

A

The research with cats formed the foundation on which theorists built their understanding of operant conditioning.

51
Q

What were the two limitations of the ‘Law of Effect: Thorndike 1898’ study?

A
  1. The findings cannot be generalised to humans as they possess more sophisticated cognitive abilities.
  2. Approval by the ethics committee would be difficult for similar experiments as placing cats in boxes repetitively may be distressing.
52
Q

What was the aim of ‘Skinner’s Box 1948’ study?

A

To demonstrate the process of operant conditioning in pigeons.

53
Q

What was the method of ‘Skinner’s Box 1948’ study?

A

Subjects: 8 pigeons.
Materials: Experimental cage with attached timer and food hopper, bird feed.
Design: IV was the time interval at which food was released. DV was the observed behaviour of pigeons.

54
Q

What were the two key findings of ‘Skinner’s Box 1948’ study?

A
  1. Operant conditioning was observed in 6/8 pigeons, and performed a unique behaviour to receive food.
  2. Shorter intervals between food release proved more effective than long intervals (15 seconds best)
55
Q

What were the two contributions of ‘Skinner’s Box 1948’ study?

A
  1. The experiment illustrates how animals develop ‘superstitious’ behaviours similar to humans.
  2. Cause and effect relationship not required.
56
Q

What were the two limitations of the ‘Skinner’s Box 1948’ study?

A
  1. Animal behaviour cannot be generalised as pigeons and humans share differing cognitive and social characteristics.
  2. Concern of mistreatment of pigeons causing them to starve.
57
Q

Define ‘Observational learning’

A

Where the learner watches a model, notices the consequences of their behaviour, and then decides whether they will imitate their behaviour.

58
Q

Define the ‘Attention’ process of observational learning and add example

A

Learner needs to find model interesting enough, or have characteristics similar to them (e.g. sex, race, personality).

59
Q

Define the ‘Retention’ process of observational learning

A

Learner needs to remember models behaviour, and relies on cognitive level.

60
Q

Define the ‘Reproduction’ process of observational learning

A

Learner needs physical and cognitive abilities to reproduce behaviour.

61
Q

Define the ‘Motivation’ process of observational learning and add example

A

Learner requires incentive to repeat behaviour (e.g. belief behaviour will be reinforced in)

62
Q

Define the ‘Reinforcement’ process of observational learning and add example

A

Learner expects modelled behaviour will be reinforced (e.g. watching model be rewarded.

63
Q

Define ‘Vicarious reinforcement’

A

A form of observational learning in which the observed consequences of a model’s action can modify the behaviour of the learner.

64
Q

What are two strengths of ‘Vicarious reinforcement’

A
  1. Relevant to situations where trial and error is not effective.
  2. Empirical evidence supports the social learning theory, such as the Bobo doll based on direction observation and measurement of real life occurrences.
65
Q

What are two limitations of ‘Vicarious reinforcement’

A
  1. Does not recognise biological processes (genetics or brain development) in social learning theory.
  2. Does not account for all behaviour performed when there is not a model available.
66
Q

What is the aim of ‘Bobo doll 1961’ experiment?

A

To determine whether children who observe an adult behaving aggressively will imitate the aggressive behaviour.

67
Q

What was the method of ‘Bobo doll 1961’ experiment?

A

Participants: 36 boys and 36 girls aged 3-4 years, used convenience sampling from Stanford University childcare centre.
Materials: A bobo doll, craft items, a mallet with peg board, a dart gun, bears, a tea set, a ball, cars, behaviour checklist and a clock.
Design: The IV was the non-exposure of children to aggressive adult models vs non-aggressive adult models. The DV was the observed aggressive behaviour in the children recorded every five seconds for twenty minutes.

68
Q

What were the three key findings of the ‘Bobo doll 1961’ experiment?

A
  1. Children who observed an aggressive adult model were more likely to mimic the physical and verbal actions they displayed toward the Bobo doll when in the absence of the model than the children who watched the non-aggressive adult model.
  2. The boys imitated more physically aggressive behaviour than the girls, however there was a similar level of imitative verbal aggression between the boys and the girls.
  3. A higher rate of imitated aggressive behaviour was observed in the children who were exposed to the same-sex model than the children exposed to the adult model of the opposite sex.
69
Q

What are the two contributions to the ‘Bobo doll 1961’ experiment?

A
  1. The study provided a framework from which research grew into the effect violence shown on television had on aggressive behaviours in children.
  2. Study was unique to previous studies as it showed observational learning occurs in situations differing from that in which the model as initially observed, and even in settings that do not feature the observed model.
70
Q

What are the two limitations of the ‘Bobo doll 1961’ experiment?

A
  1. Study was performed in laboratory setting, not typical of real-world situation, therefore it had low external validity.
  2. Children in aggressive model may have experienced a degree of psychological distress.
71
Q

Define ‘Phobia’

A

Anxiety disorder

Intense and irrational fear to an object or situation that continues over time

Out of proportion with the actual level of threat posed.

72
Q

Define ‘Systemic desensitisation’

A

Type of therapy that combines relaxation techniques with gradual exposure to overcome a phobia

73
Q

Explain the three steps to systematic desensitisation

A
  1. Together the therapist and client develop a ‘fear hierarchy’ that lists least to most distressing
  2. Client is taught relaxation techniques such as deep breathing and guided imagery
  3. Client is exposed to stimuli that are progressively more distressing, while at the same time keeps themselves relaxed/calm using techniques
74
Q

What is ‘In vitro’ exposure?

A

Imagining the scenario

75
Q

What is ‘In vivo’ exposure?

A

Real life scenario

76
Q

What are the two benefits to systematic desensitisation?

A
  1. In vitro exposure eliminates practical issues that come with real-life exposure
  2. Client is likely to continue therapy due to a high level of client control
77
Q

What are the two limitations to systematic desensitisation?

A
  1. Imagining exposure may be difficult for some clients
  2. Underlying cause of phobia is not addressed
78
Q

Define ‘Token Economy’

A

Behaviour modification technique based on operant conditioning principle whereby a symbolic reinforcer is used to encourage a particular behaviour.

79
Q

What are two benefits of token economies

A
  1. Versatile behaviour modification technique that can be customised​
  2. Transparent: participants and administrator can track progress to determine when reinforcers are given.
80
Q

What are the two limitations of token economies?

A
  1. Reinforced behaviour is extrinsically motivated, behaviour occurring to receive something.​
  2. People in token economy may lose motivation (based on extrinsic motivation)
81
Q

Define the difference between ‘Stimulus generalisation’ and ‘Stimulus discrimination’

A

Generalisation: Responding to any stimulus that is similar to the conditioned stimulus

Discrimination: Responding only to the conditioned stimulus and not to any other stimulus that bears similarities to it

year 12 psychology (6 decks)

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