Memory Flashcards
Who proposed the multi store model
Atkinson and shriffin(1968)
What are the three stages of memory
Sensory register
Short-term memory
Long term memory
What did Atkinson and Shriffin base the multi store model on?
The belief that we process memories in the same way that a computer processes information
Outline the three memory variables
Coding
- the process of changing information from the environment to story it in memory
Capacity
-the amount of information that can be stored
Duration
-the time period that information is held in the memory stores
Describe the role of the sensory register
Constantly getting information
This means that duration is short
-couple of seconds
Stores sights,sounds and tastes
If we don’t view the information as valuable, the information will be discarded,
If we do, it will move to short term memory
Duration:very quick
Capacity:large
Coding:specific to each sense
Outline a study linked to the sensory register
J.R.Stroop
Significance of valuable information on STM
You will name a colour more easily if it appears printed in that colour
Word ‘red’ that is coloured red will be named more quickly than any other word coloured red
Describe short term memory
Temporary storage system
Processes incoming sensory memory
Connects sensory memory to something already in long term memory
Storage lasts about 18-30 seconds
Duration:20 seconds
Capacity: 7+-2
Coding:primarily acoustic
Describe rehearsal
The conscious repitition of information that you want to remember.
Helps to move information from STM to LT
Called memory consolidation
Who did research towards STM capacity
George Miller (1956)
Miller
Describe research for STM capacity
George Miller (1956)
Found that people can retain about seven items in STM
7 +- 2
Describe Long Term Memory
The continuous storage of information
Contains everything that you can remember
Duration:unlimited
capacity:unlimited
Coding:primarily semantic
Describe cues in long term memories
Cues make it easier to access a memory
Describe the two types of long term memory
Explicit
Memories we consciously try to remember and recall
Sometimes explicit and declarative memory are used interchangeably
Implicit
Memories that far not part of our consciousness
Formed from behaviours
Non-declarative
Describe procedural memory
Type of implicit memory
Stored information about how to do things
Actions
No conscious recall
Describe semantic memory
Language and knowledge about language
Stores knowledge and concepts, facts
Describe episodic memory
Information about events we have personally experienced
Recollection of visual imagery
And feeling of familiarit
Outline the aim of Glanzer and Cunitz(1966)
To investigate whether STM and LTM are different memory stores
Describe the method for Glanzer and Cunitz(1966)
Ps given a list of common words to memorise.
Then asked to recall as many as possible
Describe the results of Glanzer and Cunitz(1966)
Ps remembered more words than average from the beginning (primacy effect) and the end (recency effect)
Known as serial position effect
What can we conclude from Glanzer and Cunitz(1966)
Ps remembered more words from the beginning of the list because they had been transferred by rehearsal to the long-term memory
Words at the end were still in STM
Words in the middle were forgotten because of limited capacity 7 Miller
Supports theory that the STM and LTM are separate stores
Evaluate Glanzer and Cunitz(1966)
Reliably,
Easy to replicate
Practical applications for improving memory of important information
Lacks ecological validity,
Not how we use memory in everyday life
Describe the Patient HM case study
HM suffered from severe epilepsy
Underwent surgery which destroyed his hippocampus,
Left with amnesia
Unable to make new memories
Study used numerous psychometric tests, experiments and observations
Could learn new motor skills, procedural memory in tact. Couldn’t make new episodic or semantic memories.
STM and LTM were no longer connected.
Describe the method for Peterson and Peterson(1959)
Lab experiment
24 psychology students participated
Ps had to try and recall random trigrams after different intervals of time
During these intervals, Ps had to count backwards from a random number in groups of three and four.
This stopped them from rehearsing the trigrams in their head
Describe the result of Peterson and Peterson(1959)
Ps could recall fewer trigrams as the time gap increased
3- second interval- 80% correctly
6- second interval- 50% correctly
18-second intervals- 10% correctly
What was the conclusion of Peterson and Peterson(1959)
STM has a limited duration when we can’t rehearse information
Decay causes information loss from STM
Evaluate Peterson and Peterson (1959)
Good control of variables,
Lab experiment
Low ecological validity,
Artificial set up
Lacks variety of stimuli,
No data on whether the those of stimulus affects the duration of the STM
What was the aim of Bahrick et al (1975)
To study very long term memory by testing the ability of people to recall the names of ex-classmates
Describe the method for Bahrick et al(1975)
R set up a series of three tests to test the LTM of 392 participants
The Ps we’re tested 15 years, 30
years and 48 years after graduation
Test 1- free recall
Ps asked to simply name ex-classmates
Test 2- photo recognition
Ps asked to recall names of people from yearbook
Test 3- Name recognition
Ps asked to match the names to the photograph
Describe the results of Bahrick et al(1975)
Free recall declined the most within 30 years,
Name recognition maintained a higher accuracy
15 years after graduation:
90% accuracy for name recognition
60% accuracy for free recall
Even for large class sizes
30 years after graduation:
30% accuracy for free recall
48 years after graduation:
Name recognition was 80% accurate
Photo recognition was 40% accurate
What can be concluded by Bahrick et al (1975)
Over the years, recognition was more accurate than recall
Info is stored in the LTM but information may be difficult to retrieve
Forgetting process is slow- compared to other studies in labs
Attribute the slowness to over learning
Evaluate Bahrick et al(1975)
Ecological validity
Field experiment, conducted over a long period of time , tested name recall
Name recall is a skill that people use very day
Generalisability
Results can’t be generalised to other types of information.
Names more important
Extraneous variables
Nature of study made it hard to control EV
Some may have been in regular contact
what was the aim of Sperling(1960)
To measure the amount of information that was available to a person after brief exposure to visual stimuli( recall of the sensory register)
Describe the method for Soerking(1960)
Ps shown grids of letters;
Three rows of four letters
S chose letters because they have a large amount of information and they have been used by previous investigators.
Control tests were done first to measure the individuals ability to recall the letter as this will be unique
Meant to establish a baseline for the individual.
Experiment showed Ps the grid for 0.05 seconds in 2 scenarios,
Recall whole grid
Recall a single row
The row to be recalled was identified by a high/medium/low tone that was played directly after the grid was shown.
P didn’t know high row was to be selected
Describe the results of Sperling(1960)
1st scenario: recall whole grid
Ps only managed to recall 4/5 letters out of 12
2nd scenario: recall a single row
They could only recall three letters
Results were consistent no matter which row was selected
What can be concluded from Sperling(1960)
Sensory register is finite
Entire grid was in their sensory register,
But info decayed
Evaluate sperling(1960)
Highly controlled lab experiment,
Scientific, easily replicable
Not a real life situation
Artificial
Low ecological validity
Describe the aim for Jacobs(1887)
To study the capacity of short term memory
Describe the method for Jacobs(1887)
Lab experiment
Ps asked to recall a sequence of either letters or digits.
Had to recall them in the order in which the sequence was presented.
Repeated until they couldn’t recall the sequence accurately
Describe the results for Jacobs(1887)
Ps could recall a longer string of digits than letters
On average, could recall 9 digits and 7 letters
Capacity of STM increased with age
What did Jacobs conclude from his study
Capacity for STM is finite.
There is a limit on
how much information can be stored.
Capacity between 5 to 9 pieces of information
Digits are easier to recall because there are only 10 possible digits
What is acoustic and semantic information
Acoustic
Information based on how the words sound
Semantic
Information based on what the words mean
Describe the method for Baddeley(1966)
Ps given 4 sets of words
Acoustically similar
Acoustically dissimilar
Semantically similar
Semantically dissimilar
Independent group design
(2 groups, one of two conditions)
2 conditions
Recall the sets of words immediately
Recall sets of words after 20 minute task
Describe the results for STM in Baddeley(1966)
Ps in the immediate group had difficulty recalling words that were acoustically similar
Describe the results for LTM in Baddeley(1966)
Ps in the delayed group had difficulty recalling words that were semantically similar
Describe the conclusion for Baddeley(1966)
Because acoustically similar words were more difficult to recall immediately,
STM must rely on acoustic coding
Semantically similar words were more difficult for second group,
LTM must rely on semantic coding
Evaluate Baddeley(1966)
Lab setting
Lack of ecological validity
Highly artificial scenario
Different forms of long term memory
Episodic,procedural
Another form of coding(visual)
Lacks validity
Independent group design
Difficult to control differences in people
Could affect results,
Needs twice amount of people
Who proposed the working memory model
Baddeley and Hitch(1974)
Describe the working memory model
Consists of
Central executive
Phonological loop
Visio-spatial sketchpad
Episodic buffer
Tries to rectify criticisms of the MSM
Thinks of STM as working memory, allows for manipulation in short term store
(Opposes MSM which thinks it’s static)
Give examples of working memory
Used when performing certain cognitive functions
Ie mental arithmetic
Info in LTM is accessed and transferred to working memory, combined with new info and manipulated
Counting windows on their house
describe the central executive
Central executive
Attentional system
Filters info to determine what is attended to
Processes info in all sensory forms and directs it to appropriate component
Collects responses
Limited unknown capacity
Only cope with one strand of info at a time
When attention needs to be divided, it decides how attention switches
Describe a study for the central executive
Baddely(1996)
Ps generate lists of random numbers whilst simultaneously switching between numbers and letters on a keyboard
Ps found it difficult because two tasks appeared to be competing for the same CE resources.
Limited capacity, difficult to cope with more than one info at a time
D’espositio et al(1995)
FMRI pre frontal cortex activates when verbal and spatial tasks are performed at same time, suggests PFC is involved in CE
Evaluate the Central executive
Little is known about it,
Vagueness means that it can be used to explain a variety of experimental results
Better understood as a component that controls the focus of attention rather than being a memory store
Describe the phonological loop
Deals with auditory information and consists of the inner ear and the inner voice
Confusion can occur with similar sounding words
Outline a study for the phonological loop
Baddeley(1986)
Divided the PL into sub systems
Primary acoustic store(inner ear)
- stores words recently heard
Articulatory process(inner voice)
- keeps infor in the Pl through sub-vocalised repitition of info.
Linked to speech production
Trojani and Grossi(1995)
Case study
SC
Suffered brain damage affecting PL but not VSS
Suggests they’re separate systems
Baddeley(1975)
Word length effect
Ps recalled more short words in serial order than longer words
Capacity of PL is set by the duration of words not number of words
Evaluate the phonological loop
PET scans show that different areas activated when doing verbal and visual tasks.
Adds durther support to PL and VSS exist as separate systems.
PL associated with the evolution of human vocal language
Development of Pl is seen to convey and evolutionary advantage
STM ability to remember vocalisations which help learning of more complex language
Grammar or meaning
Describe the visuo-spatial sketchpad
Temporarily stores visual and spatial information
And relationship between them.
Helps people to navigate around and interact with their physical environment
Coded and rehearsed through the use of mental pictures
Outline studies for the visuo-spatial sketchpad
Logie(1995)
Sub-dividing the VSS into the visual cache that stores visual info in the form of colour,
And inner scribe that handles spatial relationships, rehearses and transfers info into the visual cache to the CE
Klauer and Zhao(2004)
More interference between two visual tasks than a visual and spatial task
Supports separation of visual cache and inner scribe
Gathercole and Baddeley(1993)
Ps encountered problems when simulataneousky tracking a moving point of light and performing a spatial task
Ps had little difficulty tracking light and perfoming verbal task .
One task using Pl and other using VSS
Evaluate the visuo-spatial sketchpad
PET scans indicate PL and VSS are located in different parts of the brain.
Left hemisphere is activated with visual tasks.
Right hemisphere activated with spatial information.
Suggests VC and IS are separate constructs
Studies into VSS often lack mundane realism bc many of the studies are dual-task techniques that are rarely encountered in real life.
Describe the episodic buffer
Explains how info is integrated between the other sub-systems
WMM needed a general store to operate correctly
Explains how it is possible to temporarily store info combined from all components.
Tries to correct problems caused by the limited capacity of the PL and VSS and CE
Give evidence for the episodic buffer
Prabhakaran et al.
Used fMRI scans
Found greater right-frontal activation for combined verbal and spatial info
Greater posterior activation for non-combined information.
Provided biological support for an EB that allows the temporary storage of integrated information
Alkhalifa(2009
Case study
Severely impaired LTM, demonstrated STM 25 prose items, exceeding cavity of both PL and VSS
Supports episodic buffer holds information in WMM until it is recalled
Describe Shallice and Warrington(1974)
Study of KF
Supports WMM
Case study using numerous psychometric teste, experiments and observations
KF’s STM were much greater for auditory information than visual,
Suggests brain damage was restricted to the phonological loop
Supports both MSM and WMM
LTM was unaffected, different stores
VSS unaffected, different area to phonolical loop
Outline limitations of the Working Memory Model
Central executive
Unsure what it really does,
Not fully explained
Lacks ecological validity
Dual-task experiments are very artificial,
Lacks ecological validity
Lacks generalisability
Cannot generalise case studies on brain damaged patients
Ambiguity of LTM
Only model,
Leaves questions about the structure of the LTM
Outline two factors that effect forgetting in LTM
Accessibility
- once stored, hard to receive
Interference
-memory inaccessible bc old or new information blocks retrieval
Outline a factor affecting forgetting in the STM
Lack of availability
Decays or displaced
STM has limited duration and capacity
Describe the role of interference as an explanation for forgetting
Inaccessible information
Pro active interference
Old info hinders the recall of newly learned information
Retro active interference
Info learned more recently hinders recall of older information
Theory is limited,
Doesn’t explain how interference occurs
Describe a study on retroactive interference
Underwood and Postman(1960)
Lab experiment
2 groups, control and experimental
Both given word pairs to learn
Exp group also given a second list, second in word pair changed
Both asked to recall the original list
Recall of control group was much better than the experimental group
Exp groups recall has been affected by retroactive interference
Reliable,
Practical applications for education, revision
Lacks ecological validity
Could explain limited capacity of STM rather than retroactive interference
Interference only explains forgetting when info is similar
Describe a study for proactive interference
Underwood(1957)
Lab exp
Ps given list of nonsense syllables to remember and tested 24 hours later
Memory was worse than underwood expected
Concluded that students experience of taking part in ememory experiments in the past was causing confusion and led to proactive interference
Reliable
Practical application
Lacks ecological validity
Intereferebce only really explains forgetting when two pieces of information are really similar
Give a study for cue-dependant forgetting
Tukving and Pearlstone(1966)
Ps given list of 48 words to learn
Organised into 12 categories with 304 words each
Eg Fruit
Ps told that they only needed to recall the items not the headings
Ps who weren’t given the headings as cues recalled fewer words than those given the cued headings
Describe cue-dependant forgetting
Recall is dependant upon accessing info by recalling the retrieval cue under which it was stored
Success depends on how overloaded it is
Describe two styles of cue-dependant forgetting
Context-dependent
Cues from environment
State-dependent
Internal retrieval cues referring to the person rather than environment
Outline research for context dependent interference
Abernathy(1940)
After learning some material, Ps performed worse on a test when tested by an unfamiliar teacher in unfamiliar surroundings than by familiar teacher in familiar surroundings
Godden and Baddeley(1975)
When divers learnt material underwater, they recalled info better when tested underwater than on dry land.
Supports context dependent memory
Outline research for state dependent interference
Overton(1972)
Ps asked to learn material when either drunk or sober
Recall more difficult when on different state
Darley et al(1973)
Ps hide money whilst high.
Ps better at remembering where they had hidden the money if asked when they were high
Evaluate cue-dependent forgetting
Most studies are lab based
Don’t really represent what would happen in the real world
Ability to perform learned skills isn’t affected by state dependent forgetting
Effect in Godden and Baddeley only happened with free recall items.
When ps asked to identify correct items on list, no context-based effect.
Suggests CDF doesn’t explain all forms of forgetting
What is an eye witness testimony
Information and details given to police by witnesses
Includes location,time,events of the crime scene,
Appearance of criminal
What are leading questions
Questions that potentially guide a witness to a certain answer
Describe the results of Loftus and Palmer(1974)
Exp1
Ps estimated different speeds when different words were used
Ps gave higher speeds when the word smashed was used. On average estimated 41 mph
Contacted gave lowest average of 32 mph
Describe the method for Loftus and Palmer(1974)
Exp 1
Ps shown a film of 2 cars crashing and were then asked questions about the events of the crash
“How fast do you think the cars were going when they hit?”
Other words included
Smashed
Bumped,
Collided,
Contacted
Describe the method for Loftus and Palmer(1974)
Exp2
Three groups of Ps used
Group 1- given word smashed
Group 2- given word hit
Group 3- given no suggestion
A week later Ps brought in and asked
“Did you see any broken glass?”
Correct response would’ve been no.
Describe results of Loftus and Palmed(1974)
Exp 2
Group 1- smashed-
More likely to say they had seen broken glass
Both exp1 and 2 support conclusion that leading questions can affect accuracy of EWT
Evaluate Loftus and Palmer(1974)
Lab study
Control of extraneous variables
Bc film was shown , artificial setting,
May not give accurate depiction of EWT
Real life scenarios such as car crash can be traumatic.
Trauma can have effects on memory
Ps may have been aware of its true purpose,
Reliability and validity could be conmpromised
Has real life implications
Police can conduct more reliable and trustworthy interviews
Gain more accurate facts
Police should set guidelines and formulate non-leading questions
Crime the effect of anxiety on eye witness testimony
Very low levels of anxiety can result in poor recall accuracy
High levels of anxiety such as high stress and arousal after witnessing crime can also result in poor recall accuracy
Describe Loftus(1979) method
Two conditions
Independent design
Ps heard discussion in a room nearby
Group 1-
ps witnessed man come out with hand covered in grease and holding a pen
Group2-
Ps witnessed man come out carrying knife and covered in blood
Ps asked to identify man from 50 photographs
Ps unaware it was staged
Describe Loftus(1979) results
Group 1 had 49% accuracy in identifying the man
Group 2- ps only had 33% accuracy
Evaluate Loftus(1979)
Ps unaware scenario was staged
High ecological validity
Ethical issues
Potential trauma for witnesses
Ps have a right to be informed and debriefed of the nature of the deception of the study
Describe Gabbert et al(2004)
Lab experiment
60 students from uni of Aberdeen
60 local older adults
Control group watched a video of a girl stealing a wallet
Exp group put into oaurs and watched the video individually .
Told it was the same video.
One half of the pair saw the scene from a different perspective and didn’t see the girl steal the wallet
Exp group allows to discuss what they had seen
All ps completed s questionnaire to test their memory of the event
Describe the results of Gabbert et al(2004)
71% of exp reported remembering information that they had not actually seen
60% said she was guilty despite not seeing her commit the crime
Describe method for Valentine and Coxon(1997)
Effect of age on eyewitness testimony and effects of leading questions
Lab exp
3 groups
Children(7-9)
Young adults(16-18)
Elderly(60-85)
Ps watched video of a kidnapping and were asked a series of leading and non-leading questions
Describe results for Valentine and Coxon(1997)
Elderly and children gave more incorrect answers to non-leading questions.
Children were more likely to be mislead
Children are more susceptible to influence of leading questions,
Not reliable.
Elderly and children have poorer memories
Age does influence the accuracy of EWT
Describe Yuille and Cutshall(1986)
Field study
Real life crime where shop keeper shot dead a thief.
21 witnesses and 13 agreed to take part in study.
Interviewed 4-5 months after original interviews.
R compared recollections to original interviews
Witnesses also asked to rate their level of stress at the time on a 7-point scale and if suffered emotional issues since
Describe yuille and cutshall (1986) results
Accuracy was high
More stressed were more acfurate(85%)
Less stressed group(75%)
Stress can improve EWT
What is the cognitive interview
Technique developed by Fisher and Gieselman(1992) and is based on Tykving’s(1974) theory that there are several retrieval paths to each memory.
Triggers a schema that could encourage stereotyping
Memory not available through one pathway may be available through another
Change the narrative order
Change of perspective
Mental reinstatement of context
What are key features of the Enhanced Cognitive Interview
No distractions
Witness speak slowly
Reminded not to guess
Open ended questions
Stages:
Open ended questions on a neutral topic
Context reinstatement, free recall
Report everything
Uses focused memory techniques, mental imagery
