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Psychology Paper 1 > Memory > Flashcards

Memory Flashcards

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1
Q

What is Coding?

A

The format in which information is stored in various memory stores

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2
Q

What is the research in coding?

A

Baddeley = Gave different lists of words to four groups of participants to remember

Group 1 (acoustically similar) words that sound similar
Group 2 (acoustically dissimilar) words that sound different
Group 3 (semantically similar) words with similar meanings
Group 4 (semantically dissimilar) words with different meanings

-When recalling from STM participants did worse recalling acoustically similar words
-recalling from LTM did worse recalling Semantically similar words

-Meaning information is coded acoustically in STM and semantically in LTM

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3
Q

What is one strength of coding?

A

This was an important step in understanding memory which led to the multi store model

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4
Q

What is one limitation of Coding?

A

The words had no meaning to the participants, people may use sematic memory even in STM

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5
Q

What is capacity?

A

The amount of information that can be held in a memory store

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6
Q

What is the research into capacity?

A

Jacobs - digit span
-Researcher reads out 4 digits to be recalled, then 5 digits to be recalled and so on once the participant cant recall any more it is their digit span
Mean span was - 9.3

Miller - chunking (grouping digits or letters to make recall easier) thought capacity for STM was 7 items

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7
Q

What is a strength of capacity

A

Jacobs study is easily replicable

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8
Q

What is a limitation of capacity

A

Confounding variables could effect capacity such as distraction

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9
Q

What is duration?

A

The length of time information can be held in a memory store

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10
Q

What is the research of duration in STM

A

Peterson & Peterson
-Tested on students given a constant syllable to remember and a 3 digit number
-The student counted backwards from this number until told to stop (this prevented memory rehearsal of the constant syllable)
-On each trial they were trial they were told to stop at 3,6,9,12,15 or 18 seconds
-After 3 seconds recall was 80%, after 18 seconds it was 3%
-Suggesting duration of STM is 18 seconds

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11
Q

What is the research of duration in LTM

A

Bahrick et al
-Studied American participants between a vast age range
-High school yearbooks were obtained for participants
-Recall was tested by photo recognition of 50 photos
-Participants tested within 15 years were 90% , 48 years was 70%
-Showing LTM can last up to a lifetime

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12
Q

What is a strength of research on LTM duration

A

Bahricks research has high external validity as it came from real life memories

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13
Q

What is a limitation of research on duration

A

Low external validity as it was meaningless memories

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14
Q

What is a multi- store model

A

how information flows through flows through the memory system (made up of 3 main stores)

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15
Q

What is the process of the multi- store model of memory

A
  1. Information from the environment
  2. Into the sensory register
  3. Attention puts it into the STM and maintenance rehearsal keep its in the store
  4. Through prolonged rehearsal its put into the LTM store
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16
Q

What is the Sensory register in the MSM

A

The memory that stores each of our senses
Vision = Iconic store
Hearing = Echoic store
Others are touch, smell and taste
Coding = for visual info is Iconic
Coding = for sound is Echoic
Capacity = very high
Duration = very brief

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17
Q

What is Short term memory in the MSM

A

Coding = Acoustically
Duration =18 seconds
Capacity = around 7 items
Maintenance rehearsal = keeps info in STM and when its prolonged it transfers to LTM

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18
Q

What is Long term memory in the MSM

A

coding = semantically
Duration = may be a lifetime
Capacity = unlimited
When we want to recall info it has to be transferred back into STM through retrieval

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19
Q

Give one strength of the MSM

A

Research support of the difference between STM and LTM (Baddeley)

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20
Q

Give 2 limitations of the MSM

A

Over simplified = doesn’t explain memory distortion or why things can be learnt with minimal amount of rehearsal.

Baddeley used artificial, meaningless material

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21
Q

What are the 3 types of long term memory and who proposed them?

A

Tulving:
Episodic memory
Sematic memory
Procedural memory

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22
Q

What is Episodic memory?

A

A LTM store for events (episodes) from our lives that are time stamped
-Includes objects, places, behaviours
-Memory has to be concisely retrieved

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23
Q

What is Sematic memory?

A

A LTM store that contains shared knowledge of the world
-Includes what words and concepts mean

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24
Q

What is Procedural memory

A

A LTM store for knowledge of how we do things
-Can recall without conscious effort (eventually)

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25
Q

What is a strength of types of Long term memory

A

Belleville = devised an intervention to improve episodic memory in older people which led them to test better on a test of episodic memory than a control group
-shows distinguishing types of LTM enables treatments

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26
Q

What is the working memory model and who proposed it?

A

Baddeley & Hitch
A explanation of how STM is organised and how it functions
-Suggests STM controls different types of information using sub units co- ordinated by a central decision making system

27
Q

What are the 4 parts of the working memory model

A

Central executive (supervisor, the rest are slave systems)
Phonological loop
Visuo- spatial sketchpad
Episodic buffer

28
Q

What is the central executive in the WMM?

A

The supervisor role that monitors incoming info and allocates slave systems to tasks.
Capacity = very limited as it does not store information

29
Q

What is the Phonological loop in the WMM?

A

-Deals with auditory information
Divided into ;
Phonological store = stores words you hear
Articulatory process = allows maintenance rehearsal (repeating sounds or words heard)
Capacity = limited

30
Q

What is the Visuo- spatial sketchpad

A

-Stores visual and spatial information
Split into
Visual cache = stores visual data
Inner scribe = records the arrangement of objects in visual field
Capacity = limited

31
Q

What is the episodic buffer

A

-Brings together all material from slave systems into a single memory (episode)
-Links working memory to LTM

32
Q

What is a strength of the working memory model

A

Research support - Baddeley’s dual task performance support the visuo- spatial sketchpad
-particpants could carry out visual and verbal tasks
- When participants carried out two visual task performance dropped, this is because the tasks compete for the same slave system

33
Q

What are 2 limitations of the working memory model

A

too simplistic and vague, e.g. it is unclear what the central executive is, or its exact role in attention.

Results from laboratory experiments researching the WMM will often have low ecological validity

34
Q

What is the interference theory?

A

An explanation for forgetting in Long term memory as one memory blocks or distorts another

35
Q

What are the two types of interference

A

Proactive interference
Retroactive interference

36
Q

What is Proactive interference

A

When an older memory interferes with a new one

37
Q

What is Retroactive interference

A

When a Newer memory interferes with an old one

38
Q

What is the researcher and the theory of similarity in interference

A

McGeoch & McDonald - Interference is worse when memories are similar

39
Q

What is the research for similarity in interference

A

McGeoch & McDonald - studied Retroactive interference by changing the amount of similarity between two sets of materials
- 6 groups had to learn a list of 10 words, then a new list
1. Synonyms
2. anonyms
3. words unrelated to original ones
4. constant syllables
5. 3 digit numbers
6. no new list (control group)
- when asked to recall original list, the group with synonyms did the worst due to similarity

40
Q

What is a limitation of interference in explanations for forgetting?

A

McGeoch and McDonalds study lacks external validity . Artificial Materials that have no meaning to those in everyday life e.g. phone numbers, names, birthdays

41
Q

What is a strength of interference in explanations for forgetting?

A

The use of independent groups increases validity as the effect of the independent variable can be established

  • Also ensured no variables such as boredom effected results
42
Q

What are the 3 features of retrieval failure due to absence of cues

A

Encoding specificity principle
Context- dependant forgetting
State- dependant forgetting

43
Q

What is the Encoding specificity principle

A

Tulving:
- A cue (if its going to be helpful) has to be
1. present at encoding (when we learn the info)
2. present at retrieval (when we recall it)
-If the cues at encoding and retrieval are different there will be forgetting

44
Q

What is Context- dependant forgetting?

A

Recall depends on external cue (e.g. weather, place)

45
Q

What is State dependant forgetting?

A

Recall depends on internal cue (e.g. Feeling upset, being drunk)

46
Q

What is the research for Context- dependant forgetting?

A

Godden & Baddeley
-Studied deep sea divers recall of words on land or underwater
Learn on land, recall underwater
Learn on land, recall on land
Learn underwater, recall on land
Learn underwater, recall underwater
-Recall was 40% lower on non matching conditions

47
Q

What is the research for State- dependant forgetting?

A

Carter & Cassady
-Gave hay fever drugs to participants that made them feel slightly drowsy and tested their recall on and off them.
Learn on drug, Recall on drug
Learn on drug, Recall off drug
Learn off drug, Recall on drug
Learn off drug, Recall off drug
- Performance was worse on non matching conditions

48
Q

What is a strength of Retrieval failure due to absence of cues for explanations of forgetting

A

Real world application- Can help forgetting in everyday situations
e.g. When we have trouble remembering it may be helpful to go in the same environment in which you first learnt it

49
Q

What is a limitation of Retrieval failure due to absence of cues for explanations of forgetting

A

study was carried out on divers so cant be generalised to wider population - repeated measures design (same people in different conditions of the iv)

50
Q

What is the research for Leading questions

A

Loftus & Palmer
-5 groups of participants were asked to watch a clip of a car accident
-And each group were given a different verb for “how fast were the cars going when they….
Hit
Contacted
Bumped
Collided
Smashed.. into each other?”
-Those who were asked smashed estimated a significantly higher speed, and were also more likely to report seeing broken glass (leading questions altered memory)

51
Q

What is the research for Post- event discussion

A

Gabbert et al
-Studied participants in pairs who watched a video of the same crime but filmed from different POV’s
-Both participants discussed what they saw then completed a test of recall
-71% recalled aspects they had not seen but picked up from the discussion compared to control group 0% (with no discussion) - This is memory conformity

52
Q

Give one strength of Misleading information in factors effecting EWT

A

has raised awareness that the criminal justice system cannot always rely on EWT as a basis for convictions.

53
Q

Give 2 limitations for Misleading information in factors effecting EWT

A

-watching a video is less emotionally arousing than witnessing real incidents, evidence suggests that emotional arousal can increase can improve the accuracy of EWT.

-it could just be demand characteristics driving changes in recall, participants behaviour may be affected by how they perceive the purposes of the experiment

54
Q

Briefly describe how Anxiety has negative effects on recall?

A

Anxiety creates arousal in the body that prevents us from paying attention to important cues, so recall is worse

55
Q

What is the research of how Anxiety has negative effects on recall?

A

Johnson & Scott (weapon focus)
-Participants believed they were taking part in a lab study

-Whilst sitting in a waiting room heard a casual conversation then saw a man walk out with a pen and grease on his hands

-Another group heard a heated argument and breaking glass then a man waling out with a knife and blood in his hands

-Later they were asked to pick out the man from 50 photos
The Group who saw the knife had over 10% worse recall due to weapon focus

56
Q

Briefly describe how Anxiety has positive effects on recall?

A

Anxiety triggers the fight or flight response increasing alertness

57
Q

What is the research of how Anxiety has positive effects on recall?

A

Yuille & Cutshall
-Conducted a study from an actual shooting, where the shop owner shot a thief dead
-Witnesses were interviewed 5 months after the incident and these were compared to the original interviews
-They were also asked to rate how stressed they were at the time
-Those who reported highest levels of stress were the most accurate.

58
Q

Give 2 Limitations of effects of anxiety on EWT

A

Johnson and Scott, Ethical issues - Deception about the nature of the experiment and protection from harm, exposed some of the participants to a man holding a bloodied knife

Johnson and Scott may have measured surprise rather than anxiety, the weapons focus effect may be due to unusualness of circumstances rather than anxiety (Confounding variables)

59
Q

Give 2 strengths of effects of anxiety on EWT

A

Yerkes Dodson law states that a moderate amount of anxiety is needed for accuracy

Yuille and Cutshall used real life witness from a real crime, increases generalisability and real world application

60
Q

Outline and briefly describe the 4 aspects of the cognitive interview

A

Report everything (Every detail even if it seems irrelevant)

Reinstate context (should return to the scene in their mind )

Reverse order (Middle to beginning or end to start etc)

Changed perspective (Recall it from another person view e.g criminal, another witness)

61
Q

What is a strength of the cognitive interview

A

meta-analysis by Kohnkhen compared the cognitive interview to regular police interviews. he found that the CI gave 41% more accurate information.

However he also found an increase in inaccurate info
CI may be exchanging quality over quantity

62
Q

What is a limitation of the cognitive interview

A

Time consuming - police are reluctant to use as it is a time consuming method
-Rapport needs to be built
-specialist training of the method is required for it to be effective.

63
Q

Who are the researchers for memory?

A

Baddeley
Jacobs
Bahrick et al
Peterson & Peterson
Tulving
Godden & Baddeley
Carter & Cassady
McGeoch & McCdonald
Gabbert et al
Loftus & Palmer
Johnson & Scott
Yulie & Custshall

Psychology Paper 1 (4 decks)

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