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Memory Flashcards

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1
Q

What is coding in terms of memory?

A

The format in which information is stored.

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2
Q

What is the coding of STM?

A

Acoustic

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3
Q

What is the coding of LTM?

A

Semantic

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4
Q

What study is used to research coding?

A

Baddeley (1966)- cat/mat study
Different lists of words were given to four groups of participants.
1. acoustically similar
2. acoustically dissimilar
3. semantically similar
4. semantically dissimilar
Participants had to recall the words in the correct order.
STM- acoustically similar words performed worst.
LTM- after 20 minutes, semantically similatr words performed worst.

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5
Q

What is a strength of Baddeley’s cat/mat study?

A

Identified a clear difference bwteen two memory stores.
Later research showed that there are some exceptions to Baddeley’s findings but the idea that STM is acoustically coded and LTM is mostly semantic has been applied for many years and still is.
This was important in helping us understand the memory system and this help lead to the MSM.

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6
Q

What is a limitation of Baddeley’s cat/mat study?

A

It used artificial stimuli instead of meaningful material.
For example, the word lists had no personal meaning to participants, so Baddeley’s findings may not tell us much about coding in different memory tasks.
When processing more meaningful information, people may use semantic coding even for STM tasks.
This suggests that the findings from this study may have limited application.

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7
Q

What is the capacity of STM?

A

7 +/- 2

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8
Q

What is the capacity of LTM?

A

Unlimited

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9
Q

What study was used to find the capacity of STM?

A

Miller (1956)- digit span experiment

This was where participants had to recall a list of numbers read out by the researcher, gradually increasing in length.

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10
Q

What is a limitation of Miller (1956)?

A

He may have overestimated STM capacity.

Cowan (2001) reviewed other research and concluded that the capacity of STM is 4 +/- 1.

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11
Q

What research is there for the capacity of LTM?

A

Solomon S could remember his childhood memories, huge sequences of numbers and he never had to take notes.
He could remember the information for many years.

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12
Q

What research is there for the duration of STM?

A

Peterson and Peterson (1959)
24 participants recalled trigrams
Trigrams presented one at a time and recalled after intervals of 3, 6, 9, 12, 15 or 18 seconds.
No successive trigram contains the same letters.
Participants were prevented from rehearsal.
After 3 seconds- 80%, after 6 seconds- 50% and after 18 seconds- 10%.

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13
Q

What is the duration is STM?

A

Up to 30 seconds.

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14
Q

What is the duration of LTM?

A

Potentially a life time.

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15
Q

What is research evidence of the duration of LTM?

A 
Bahrick et al (1975)
400 participants aged 17-74
3 tests-
- name recognition of ex school friends
- photo recognition of 50 pictures
- free recall of names of people in graduate class.

After 15 years- 90% accurate names and faces
After 48 years- 80% verbal and 70% visual
Free recall- 15 years= 60% and 48 years= 30%.

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16
Q

What is a limitation of Peterson and Peterson (1959) trigram research?

A

The study lacked external validity as the stimulus material was meaningless.
The study was not completely meaningless however as we do sometimes remember fairly irrelevant material.
However, recalling consonants does not reflect everyday memory activities.

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17
Q

What is a strength of Bahrick et al.’s (1975) study?

A

It has high external validity.
This is because the researchers investigated meaningful memories.
When studies on LTM were conducted with meaningless pictures to be remembered, recall rates were lower (Shepard 1967).

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18
Q

Who proposed the multi-store model of memory?

A

Atkinson and Schiffrin (1968)

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19
Q

What are the three components of the MSM?

A

Sensory register
STM
LTM.

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20
Q

What is the sensory register?

A

Duration- 1/4 to 1/2 second
Capacity- vast
Coding- sense specific

Information arrives from the five senses
Large capacity but short duration
Most of the information is lost through decay.

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21
Q

How is information transferred from the sensory register to STM?

A

If a person’s attention is focused on one of the sensory stores, data is transferred.

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22
Q

What is the STM (MSM)?

A

Duration- 0-18 seconds
Capacity- 7 +/- 2
Coding- acoustic

Information is lost through displacement or decay
Maintenance rehearsal is the process of verbally or mentally repeating information
This can allow the duration of STM to extend beyond 30 seconds.

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23
Q

What are the two types of rehearsal?

A

Maintenance rehearsal

Elaborative rehearsal

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24
Q

How is information passed from the STM to LTM?

A

Maintenance rehearsal ‘renews’ the information in the memory trace, making it a stronger memory when transferred.

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25
Q

What is the LTM (MSM)?

A

Duration- potentially a lifetime
Capacity- potentially unlimited
Coding- semantic

If information is given meaning it is passed onto the LTM.
This is called elaborative rehearsal, which is much more effective than maintenance rehearsal.

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26
Q

What does the MSM assume the sensory register, STM and LTM are?

A

Unitary stores.

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27
Q

What case study is evidence for the MSM?

A

HM case study- unable to learn new things in LTM but could remember short strings of digits in STM.
Evidence for being separate unitary stores.

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28
Q

What is research support of the MSM?

A

Glanzer and Cunitz (1966)- serial position effect
Primacy is recall of words heard first and demonstarted they are held in LTM.
Recency is recall of words heard last and demonstrate they are held in LTM.

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29
Q

What are 4 conclusions from Glanzer and Cunitz (1966)?

A
  1. Words at the start of the list are rehearsed sufficiently to enter LTM.
  2. Words at the end of the list are being rehearsed in STM.
  3. Words in the middle are forced out by words at the end due to the limited capacity and so are forgotten.
  4. When you distract a person (to stop them rehearsing words at the end into LTM) the recency effect disappears , because of the STM’s limited duration.
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30
Q

What is a limitation of the MSM?

A

The model is too simple.
Different types of STM are found in the WMM.
MSM sees both STM and LTM as simple unitary stores.

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31
Q

What study surrounding maintenance rehearsal does not support the MSM?

A

Maintenance rehearsal does not always transfer to LTM
Bekerian and Baddeley (1980) found that despite hearing info about changes to BBC radio over 100 times, people still did not know about it.

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32
Q

What study surrounding elaborative rehearsal does not support the MSM?

A

Craik and Watkins suggested elaborative rehearsal (assigning meanings).
MSM possibly does not account for this semantic rehearsal.

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33
Q

What two case studies do not support the MSM?

A

KF

Clive Wearing

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34
Q

What is the KF case study?

A

Suffered from amnesia
His short term memory for digits was very poor when they read them out loud to him but his recall was much better when he read them to himself.
This is a limitation of the MSM and strength of the WMM as it shows that there must be a short-term store to process visual information (VSS working) and another to process auditory information (PL damaged).

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35
Q

What is the Clive Wearing case study?

A

Clive contracted a brain infection which left him unable to remember faces or things said just moments ago.
However he is still able to read music and play the piano and once even conducted his former choir again.

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36
Q

Who proposed the working memory model?

A

Baddeley and Hitch (1974)

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37
Q

What are the four parts of the WMM?

A

Central executive
Phonological loop
Visuo-spatial sketchpad
Episodic buffer

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38
Q

What is the central executive?

A

Drives the whole system (esentially the boss) and allocates data to the subsystems.
It has a limited capacity and retrives information from LTM via the episodic buffer.
It deals with cognitive tasks such as mental arithmetic and problem solving.

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39
Q

What is the episodic buffer?

A

Added later in 2000
Acts as a temporary store which integrates visual, spatial and verbal information to record episodes
It communicates with both LTM and the components of working memory
It has a limited capacity- 4 chunks of information.

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40
Q

What is the phonological loop?

A

Deals with spoken and writterns material and has a limited capacity.
It has two parts which are the phonological store and the articulatory process.

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41
Q

What is the phonological store?

A

Acts as an inner ear and linked to speech perception.
Holds information in a speech-based form (i.e spoken words) for 1-2 seconds.
Spoken words enter the store directly whereas written words must be converted into an articulatory (spoken) code before they can enter the phonological store.

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42
Q

What is the articulatory process?

A

Acts as an inner voice and linked to speech production.
It can store verbal information from the phonological store, and can hold about 2 seconds worth of information.
Rehearses information from the phonological store and it circulates information round and round. This is how we remember information we have just heard- as long as we keep repeating it, we can retain the informatiopn in working memory.
The articulatory control process also converts written material into an articulatory code and transfers it to the phonological store.

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43
Q

What is the visuo-spatial sketchpad?

A

Stores visual and spatial information as is known as the inner eye.
Plays an important role in helping us keep track of where we are in relation to other objects as we move through out environment.
The sketchpad also displays and manipulates visual and spatial information held in LTM.

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44
Q

What did Logie (1995) do in terms of the WMM?

A

Subdivided the visuo-spatial sketchpad into two systems.
The visual cache stores visual information.
The inner cache records the arrangements of objects in our visual field.

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45
Q

What is the ‘word length effect’?

A

An articulatory process.
Limited capacity determined by the length of time it takes to rehearse words.
- Single syllable- easier
- Multi syllable- harder.

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46
Q

Name two dual task studies supporting the WMM.

A

Baddeley and Hitch (1976)

Baddeley et al (1975)

47
Q

Baddeley and Hitch (1976)

A

Dual task study which involved remembering a number (PL) and a logic question (CE).
The two tasks used two different systems so should be able to be performed at the same time and this was shown by the fact that as the digits increased they didn’t make any more mistakes in the verbal reasoning task.

48
Q

Baddeley et al. (1975)

A

A participants peformed a visual tracking task (VSS) and then either a verbal task (PL) OR descriving all the angles on the letter F (VSS).
The task where participants did the verbal task and the visual tracking task performed better as it used two different systems.

49
Q

What is and argument against the WMM surrounding the central executive?

A

Very little evidence for the central executive

Baddeley describes it as the ‘least understood’ part of the model.

50
Q

Does the WMM lack complete understanding?

A

Yes.
It does not explain LTM.
It does not account for ‘musical memory’- i.e. we can listen to music without having other acoustic memory affected.
Some brain scan studies suggest that the CE is not unitary and in fact can be split into two parts for auditory and visual.

51
Q

What is an argument against the WMM involving the VSS?

A

The VSS is unsure whether it is one or two systems.
Lieberman (1990) said that the VSS implies that all spatial info was first visual which had been proved to not be true.
For example blind people have excellent spatial awareness although they may have never had visual info.
The VSS should be separated into two different components- one for visual and one for spatial.

52
Q

What are the three types of LTM?

A

Procedural
Semantic
Episodic

53
Q

What is procedural memory?

A

‘How to’ and ‘muscle memory’.
Time stamped
Unonscious
Not organised

54
Q

What is semantic memory?

A

Knowledge and facts
Not time stamped
Conscious
Hierachically organised

55
Q

What is episodic memory?

A

Events from your life (AK= autobiographical knowledge and AE= autobiographical episode).
Not time stamped
Unconscious
Not organised.

56
Q

What part of LTM was damaged and what was working for Clive Wearing?

A

Damaged episodic

Working procedural.

57
Q

Why may Clive Wearing be able/not able to be used as evidence for the different types of LTM?

A
  • Hard to generalise
    + Proves MSM
    + Depth and detail.
58
Q

What did Bower (1969) investigate?

A

Semantic organisation in LTM.

- Types of LTM topic.

59
Q

Bower (1969).

A
  • Two groups of participants were presented with the same 28 words to learn.
  • One group had the words hierachically organised on the page whereas the other group was given the words randomly arranged on the page.
  • They were asked to recall as many words as possible.

The organised condition recalled higher meaning that LTM storage is probably semantically organised.

60
Q

Evaluation of Bower (1969).

A
  • Lack of mundane realism
  • Participant variables
    + High internal validity -> establish causality
    + Independent groups design so no ‘order effects’.
61
Q

Tulving et al. (1994)

A

Types of LTM topic.
- Participants performed various memory tasks, while their brains were scanned by a PET scan.
Episodic and semantic memories activate the prefrontal cortex (Semantic left PFT and episodic right PFT).
This shows there are different types of LTM.

62
Q

Tulving et al. (1994) evaluation.

A

+ Visual evidence

- Doesn’t measure electrical impulses- isn’t accurate.

63
Q

Cohen and Squire (1980).

A

Drew a distinction between declarative knowledge and procedural knowledge.
Non-declarative knowledge involves ‘knowing how’ to do things.
Declarative knowledge involves ‘knowing that’- recalling information from declarative memory involves some degree of conscious effort.

64
Q

What are two theories of forgetting?

A

Interference

Retrieval failure

65
Q

What are the two types of interference?

A

Proactive

Retroactive

66
Q

What is proactive interference?

A

Earlier learning interferes with what you are trying to learn at present.
(New information is affected).

67
Q

What is retroactive interference?

A

Newer learning interferes with the recall of earlier learning.
(Old information is affected).

68
Q

Keppel and Underwood (1962) procedure.

A

Repeated measures design
Two trials where they had to learn trigrams and then count backwards for 3, 9 or 18 seconds before recalling.
Order of testing was counterbalanced to control for order effects.

69
Q

Keppel and Underwood (1962) results.

A

1st trial- performance was almost 100% recall although some participants had only 3 second intervals, others 18 seconds.
2nd trial- performance fell steadily as the time interval increased (proactive interference).

70
Q

What is competitive interference?

A

Where retroactive and proactive are competing in situations.

It is worse with similarity.

71
Q

McGeoch and McDonald (1931)- effect of similarity.

A

Tested retroactive interference by changing the level of similarity between two sets of info.
Participants had to learn a list of ten words until they 100% recall.
They split into six groups, each with a different 2nd set of words to learn (synonyms- performed worst, antonyms, unrelated, nonsense syllables, 3 digit numbers or no second list- performed best).
They then recalled the original list.
Similarity made it harder to recall.

72
Q

Is there validity issues with interference studies?

A

Yes

Many lack mundane realism as the tasks are not usually performed in everyday life.

73
Q

What is an example of inference in a more everyday situation?

A

Baddeley and Hitch (1977) asked rugby players to recall the names of the teams they had played against during a rugby season.
The players all played for the same time interval but the number of intervening games varied because some players missed matches due to injury.
Players who played the most games (most interference for memory) had the poorest recall- this increases the validity of the theory of interference.

However, interference may cause some forgetting in everyday situations but it is unusual. Two memories must be very similar to interfere which is hard to achieve in everyday life but easy in lab studies. This suggests that possibly retrieval failure may provide a better explanation.

74
Q

What is a limitation of interference?

A

It is temporary and can be overcome by using cues.
Tulving and Psotka (1971) gave participants lists of words organised into categories, one list at a time.
recall averaged about 70% for the first list but became progressively worse as participants learned from each additional list.
At the end of the procedure participants were given a cued recall test and recall rose to 70% again.
This shows interference causes a temporary loss of accessibility to material that is still in LTM, a finding not predicted by interference theory.

75
Q

What are two factors which affect EWT?

A 
Misleading information (leading questions and post-event discussion).
Anxiety.
76
Q

Loftus and Palmer (1974) procedure.

A

45 American students- opportunity sample
Lab experiment with five conditions
Each person did one condition- independent groups design
Shown slides of a car accident involving a number of cars- they had to describe what happened as if they were eyewitnesses
Asked specific questions with a changed verb.

One week later, participants were asked if there was broken glass.

77
Q

What was the independent variable and dependent variable in Loftus and Palmer (1974)?

A 
IV= Verb used
DV= Answer in MPH
78
Q

Loftus and Palmer (1974) findings.

A 
Smashed- 40.8 MPH- more likely to invent seeing glass
Collided- 39.3 MPH
Bumped- 38.1 MPH
Hit- 34.0 MPH
Contacted- 31.8 MPH
79
Q

Loftus and Palmer (1974) conclusion.

A

The research shows EWT can be inaccurate as memory can easily by distorted by questioning technique.

80
Q

Loftus and Palmer (1974) evaluation.

A
  • /+ It is a lab, so whilst variables can be controlled, there is a lack of ecological validity.
  • Opportunity sample so not representable and hard to generalise.
  • Lacks mundane realism
81
Q

Yuille and Cutshall (1986) procedure.

A

21 witnesses observed a shooting incident where a thief was killed and the shop owner, who had been robbed, was seriously injuired.
All 21 were interviewed by police soon after the event and 13 of these took part in the case study research 4 to 5 months after.
Researchers analysed the eyewitness accounts provided by the police and the research interviews.

82
Q

Yuille and Cutshall (1986) findings.

A

Witnesses were accurate, except in some aspects of person description, with a little change in accuracy reported over the delay period between the two interviewing sequences.
Eyewitnesses resisted misleading information and stress levels did not appear to have a negative effect on their memory.
The results from this study differ from lab studies suggesting that more field research may be needed to help evaluate the generalisability of lab experiments.

83
Q

What is some real-world application of research into misleading information?

A

It has important practical uses in the criminal justice system. Loftus (1975) believes that leading questions can have such a distorting effect on memory that police officers need to be careful with how they phrase their questions while interviewing.
Psychologists are soemtimes asked to act as expert witnesses in court trials and explain the limits of EWT to juries.

However, the practical applications of EWT may be affected by issues with research as being in a situation is different than being in a lab. This may suggests that some reserachers are too pessimistic about the effects of misleading information- EWT may be more dependable than many studies suggest.

84
Q

What is a limitation of research into EWT?

A

The substitution explanation proposes that the wording of a leading question changes the participants memory of the original incident.- however a limitation of this is that EWT is more accurate for aspects of an event than others.
Sutherland and Hayne (2001) showed participants a video clip. When participants were later asked misleading questions their recall was more accurate for central details than for peripheral ones- this is most likely because their attention was focused on theirs and these memories were relatively resistant to misleading info.

85
Q

Evaluation of the inverted-U theory.

A
  • Too simplistic as it ignores many elements of anxiety such as cognitive and behavioural.
  • Lack of control as meta analysis is secondary data.
    + High generalisability as there was many people involved.
86
Q

What is the inverted-U theory in relation to the effect of anxiety on EWT?

A

Yerkes and Dodson (1908) found the relationship between emotional arousal and performance looks like an ‘inverted U’.
Deffenbacher (1983) reviwed 21 EWT studies and used Yerkes-Dodson Law to explain the findings.
Performance will increase with stress, but only to a certain point, where it will decrease drastically.

87
Q

Why may anxiety have a negative effect on recall?

A

Anxiety creates psychological arousal, which may prevent us from paying attention to important cues and so recall is worse.

88
Q

Johnson and Scott (1976) procedure.

Weapon focus

A

Lab study and independent groups design
One condition- participants were in a waiting room and heard a casual conversation in the next room, which is a low anxiety environment. They then saw a man walk past with a pen and grease on his hands.
Other condition- participants were in a waiting room and heard a heated argument and glass smash, which is a high anxiety environment. They then saw a man walk past with a knife covered in blood.

89
Q

Johnson and Scott (1976) results and explanation.

A

49% of participants in the low anxiety environment identified the man out of 50 photos.
33% of participant in the high anxiety environment identified the man out of 50 photos.

This may be due to the tunnel theory of memory that argues people have enhanced memory for central events.

90
Q

What is a limitation of the Johnson and Scott (1976) study?

A

It may not have tested anxiety and instead people may have focused on the weapon as they were suprised not scared.
Pickel (1998) found eyewitness accuracy was worse in unusual conditions.
This suggests that the weapon focus effect is due to unusualness and not anxiety.

91
Q

Name a study which supports Johnson and Scott’s (1976) research.

A

Valentine and Mesout (2009) found weapon focus affected recall and in this situation it was details about an actor in the London Dungeon.
Anxiety was measured via heart rate.
High levels of anxiety has a negative effect on immediate eyewitness recall.

92
Q

Why may anxiety have a positive effect on recall?

A

Psychological arousal will cause the fight or flight resposne to be triggered increasing alertness which may make us more aware of cues.

93
Q

What study is evidence of a positive effect of anxiety on recall?

A

Yuille and Cutshall (1986)

94
Q

Yuille and Cutshall (1986)- anxiety.

A

Witnesses were accurate in their account and there was little change in recall after 5 months.
Participants who reported more stress were most accurate.

95
Q

Name some other evidence supporting the idea that participants are more accurate when more anxious.

A

Christianson and Hubinette (1993) found all 58 witnesses of real life bank robberies were 75% or more accurate.
Direct vicitms were more accurate.

However, they could not control participants between the event and interview- post event discussion.
Their lack of control over confouding variables may invalidate their support.

96
Q

What is retrieval failure?

A

Absence of cues.

97
Q

What is Tulving’s encoding specificity principle?

A

Says that a cue needs to be present at encoding and retrieval.
If cues at encoding and retrieval are different then there will be some forgetting.

98
Q

What are two examples of non-meaningful cues which could lead to retrieval failure?

A

Context dependent forgetting

State dependent forgetting.

99
Q

What is context dependent forgetting?

A

Recall depends on external cue.

100
Q

What is state dependent forgetting?

A

Recall depends on internal cue.

101
Q

What is a study showing context dependent forgetting?

A

Godden and Baddelely (1975)
Field experiment with deep sea divers
Given a list of words to learn on land or underwater.
Recall of words was then tested in same or different context.
Different context= 30% worse.

Learning and recalling in the same context leads to better recall and when different context the person will suffer from retrieval failure (CDF).

102
Q

What is a study showing state dependent forgetting?

A 
Carter and Cassaday (1998).
Participants were given antihistamines (can create a drowsy effect) or a placebo and then asked to learn a list of words and passages of prose and then recall the information again creating four different conditions.
1. AH-AH
2. Placebo-Placebo
3. Placebo-AH
4. AH-Placebo

In congruent conditions they demonstrated better results.
In disparate conditions they demonstrate SDF.
Altering the state eliminates the cues.

103
Q

What is a limitation of retrieval failure?

A

Context effects may depend substantially on the type of memory being tested.
Godden and Baddeley (1980) replicate their underwater experiment and used a recognition test instead of recall- participants had to say whether they recognised a words read to them from a list, instead of retrieving it themselves.
When recognition was tested there was on CDF, performance was the same in all four conditions.
This sugegsts retrieval failure is a limited explanation for forgetting because it only applies when a person has to recall info rather than recognise it.

104
Q

What is some real-world application of retrieval failure?

A

Retrieval cues can help to overcome some forgetting in everday situations.
Although cues may not have a very strong effect on forgetting, Baddeley suggests they are still worth paying attention to.
When we have trouble remembering something, it is probbably worth recalling the environment in which you learned it first.
This shows us how research can remind us of strategies we use in real world to improve recall.

105
Q

What is a strength of retrieval failure as an explanation for forgetting?

A

There is a wide range of research which supports the explanation.
For example Carter and Cassaday and Godden and Baddeley.
Memory researchers Eysenck and Keane (2010) argue that retrieval failure is perhaps the main reason for forgetting from LTM.
This shows that retrieval failure occurs in real life and not just highly controlled lab studies.

106
Q

What is a counterpoint to a strength of retrieval failure an an explanation for forgetting?

A

Baddeley (1997) argues that context effects are actually not very strong, especially in everyday life.
Different contexts have to be very different before the effect is seen for example in Godden and Baddeley’s study.
In contrast, learning something in one room and forgetting it in another is unlikely to result in much forgetting because these environments are not different enough.
This means retrieval failure due to lack of contextual cues may not actually explain everyday forgetting.

107
Q

What did Fisher and Gieselman (1992) create?

A

The cognitive interview.

They investigated different interview techniques to create their own.

108
Q

What are the four parts of the cognitive interview?

A

Report everything- avoids misleading information and gathers building blocks.
Reinstate context- introducing cues (photos etc.), ‘picture the scene’, resposition them in the even- related to CDF.
Change narrative order- reverse or rearrange the memory of the event, this prevents people reporting their expectations of how the event must of happened.
Change of perspective- Reevaluate their view and asked to consider others’ perspectives to retrieve cues and once again disrupt the effect of expectations and effect of schema on recall.

109
Q

What are two general limitations of the cognitive interview?

A

Requires lots of time

Professionals are needed to conduct it.

110
Q

What is a limitation of the cognitive interview?

A

Not all of its elements are equally useful or effective.
Milne and Bull (2002) found that each of the four techniques used alone produced more information than the standard police interview.
They also found that using a combination of reinstate the context and report everything it produced better recall than any other elements or combination of them.
This casts some doubt on the credibility of the overall cognitive interview.

111
Q

What is the enhanced cognitive interview?

A

Fisher et al. (1987) developed some additional elements of the CI to focus on the social dynamic of the interaction. For example, the interviewer needs to know when to establish eye contact.
The enhanced CI also includes ideas such as reducing eyewitness anxiety, minimising distractions, getting the witness to speak slowly and asking open-ended questions.

112
Q

What study shows the effectiveness of the CI in a different country?

A

Stein and Memon (2006)
Shows the effectiveness of CI in Brazil.
- CI was more effective than any other method as information was more accurate and detailed.

113
Q

What is a study showing the importance of CI?

A

Geiselman et al (1985)- assessed the accuracy of cognitive interview.
Independent groups design-
- CI- 41.2% accurate
- Standard interview for LAPD- 29.4% accurate
- Hypnosis interview- 38% accurate
The number of facts accurately recalled and errors made were recorded.
There was no significant difference in number of errors in each condition.

The CI leads to better memory for events as more relevant information is recalled, compared to other interview methods.

A Level Psychology (10 decks)

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