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Gender Flashcards

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1
Q

What is sex?

A

The biological differences between males and females including anatomy, hormones and chromosomes.

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2
Q

What is gender?

A

The psychological, social and cultural differences between women and men including attitudes, behaviour and social roles.

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3
Q

What is a sex-role seterotype?

A

A set of beliefs and preconceived ideas about what is expected or appropriate for men and women in a given society or social group.

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4
Q

How many chromosomes do humans have?

A

23 pairs

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5
Q

What chromosomes are female?

A

XX

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6
Q

What chromomes are male?

A

XY

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7
Q

Is sex nature or nurture?

A

Nature

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8
Q

Is gender nature or nurture?

A

Nurture

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9
Q

What does gender dysphoria involve?

A

When someones biological sex does not correspond to the gender they identify with.

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10
Q

What is androgyny?

A

Displaying a balance of masculine and feminine charactetristics in one’s personality.

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11
Q

What is the Bem Sex Role Inventory?

A

The first systematic attempt to measure androgyny using a rating scale of 60 traits (20 masculine, 20 feminine and 20 neutral) to produce scores across two dimensions: masculinity-femininity an androgynous-undifferentiated.

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12
Q

What did Bem suggest high androgyny is associated with?

A

Psychological well-being, this is becasue they will have a wider range of traits to draw on in situations.

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13
Q

What was the method for the BSRI?

A

Respondents were required to rate themselves on a seven-point rating scale for each item.
Scores are then classified on the basis of two dimensions as follows-
High masculine, low feminine= masculine
High feminine, low masculine= feminine
High masculine, high feminine= androgynous
Low masculine, low feminine= undifferentiated.

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14
Q

What has been challenged about the BSRI in terms of psychological health?

A

Bem placed a great emphasis on the idea that androgynous individuals are more psychologically healthy.
Adams and Sherer however found that people with a greater proportion of masculine traits are better adjusted as these are more highly valued in individualist cultures.

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15
Q

Evaluation of Bem in relation to her quantitative approach.

A

Her quanitative approach can be useful when it is necessary such as quanitfying a dependent variable in an investigation.
Spence (1984) however suggested that there is more to gender than a set of behaviours typical of one gender or the other, so qualitative methods are better.
This suggests that quantitative and qualitative methods together will be more useful for studying different aspects of gender.

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16
Q

What is a limitation of the Bem Sex Inventory in relation to self awareness.

A

People may not have insight into their degree of masculinity, femininity or androgyny.
Asking people to rate themselves on a questionnaire requires on people having a self awareness of their personality and behaviour.
The questionnaires scoring system is also subjectibe and people’s application of the 7 point scale may be different.
This suggests that the BSRI may not be an objective, scientific way of asserting masculinity, femininity or androgyny.

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17
Q

What is an evaluation of the BSRI in relation to validity and reliability?

A

The scale was developed by asking 50 males and 50 females to rate 200 traits in terms of how much they represented ‘maleness’ and ‘femaleness’. The BSRI was then piloted with over 1000 students and then a follow up with the students a few months later produced the same results showing test-restest reliability.
However the BSRI was developed over 40 years ago and behavious regarded at ‘typical’ have likely changed since then. The scale was developed in the USA and so may also be culturebound. Therefore the BSRI may lack temporal validity and generalisability.

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18
Q

What are chromosomes?

A

Found in the nucleus of living cells and carrying information in the form of genes.
The 23rd pair determines biological sex.

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19
Q

What is testosterone?

A

A hormone from the androgen group that is produced mainly in the male testes (and in smaller amounts in the female ovaries).
It is associated with aggression.

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20
Q

What is oestrogen?

A

The primary female hormone, playing an important role in the menstrual cycle and reproductive system.

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21
Q

What is oxytocin?

A

A hormone which causes contraction of the uterus during labour an stimulates lactation.

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22
Q

What chromosomes do eggs have?

A

X

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23
Q

What chromosomes do sperms have?

A

X or Y

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24
Q

What does the Y chromosome carry?

A

A gene called the SRY and this causes testes to develop in an XY embryo.

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25
Q

What is the role of hormones in sex and gender?

A

Gender development comes about through the influence of hormones.
Males and female produce many of the same hormones but in different concentrations.

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26
Q

What is the role of oestrogen?

A

During menstruation, women can experience heightened emotion and irritability.
This is referred to as premenstrual tension when these effects become a diagnosable condition.
It has successfully been used as a defense in some cases in shoplifitng and murder.

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27
Q

Is the role of testosterone linked to evolution?

A

Yes

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28
Q

What is the role of oxytocin?

A

It stimulates lactation and also reduces cortisol and facilitates bonding.
As males produce less it fuelled the stereotype that men are less interested in intimacy within a relationship.
However, evidence suggests that both sexes prduce oxytocin in roughly equal amount during amorous activities.

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29
Q

What is CAH?

A

Congenital adrenal hyperplasia is a rare disorder that causes high prenatal levels of testosterone in both females and males.
However it is more obvious in newborn girls who may have ambiguous genitals due to the masculinising effect of the male hormones.
Berenbaum and Bailey found that females with CAH are often more likely to be described as tomboys and exibit higher levels of aggression.

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30
Q

What is a limitation of biological explanations of gender?

A

They are reductionist and so therefore reduce everything down to chromosomes and hormones.
The cognitive approach would draw attention to the influence of scheme.
The psychodynamic approach would acknowledge maturation as a factor but point to the importance of childhood experiences such as interaction withtin the family.
This suggests that gender is more complex than its biological influences alone.

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31
Q

What is a limiation of the biological approach to gender in relation to social factors.

A

They are ignored.
Hofstede et al. claim that gender roles around the world are much more of a consequence of social norms rather than biology. This could be in relation to whether the culture is collectivist or individualist (UK and USA. Individualist cultures are more likely to include traditional masculine traits.
This challenges the biological explanation and suggests that social factor may be more important in shaping gender behaviour.

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32
Q

What is a strength of the biological explanation of gender?

A

There is evidence which supports the role of sex hormones in gender development even in mature males.
Wang et al. looked at 227 hypogonadal men (fail to produce normal levels of tesosterone) testosterone therapy for 180 days. Changes were observed in body shape, muscle strength and sexual function across the period.
This shows testosterone exerts a powerful and direct influence on male sexual arousal.
In a double-blind placebo study O’Connor et al. increased testosterone levels in young men and there was no significant increases in the interactional and non-interactional components of sexual behaviour. There was also no changes in mood or agression suggesting that additional testosterone may have no effect on behaviour- however this does not challenge the role of testosterone in early development.

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33
Q

What are atypical sex chromosome patterns?

A

Any sex chromosome pattern that deviates from the usual XX/XY formation which tends to be associated with a distinct pattern of physical and psychological symptoms.

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34
Q

What is Klinefelter’s syndrome?

A

A syndrome affecting males in which an individual’s genotype has an extra X chromosome (in addition to the normal XY).

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35
Q

What is Turner syndrome?

A

A chromosomal disorder in which affected women have only one X chromosome (XO).

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36
Q

How many people does Klinefelter’s affect?

A

1 in 600 males.

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37
Q

How many cases of Klinefelter’s is through prenatal diagnosis?

A

10%

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38
Q

What are some physical characteristics of Klinefelter’s syndrome?

A

Breast development
Reduced body hair
Underdeveloped genitals
Problems with co-ordination.

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39
Q

What are some psychological characteristics of Klinefelter’s syndrome?

A

Poorly developed language skills
Passive and shy
Lack interest in sexual activity
May not respond well to stressful situations.

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40
Q

How many people does Turner syndrome affect?

A

1 in 5000 biological females

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41
Q

What are some physical characteristics of Turner’s syndrome?

A

No mentrual cycle
Ovaries do not develop
Broad chest
‘Webbed’ neck

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42
Q

What are some psychological characteristics of Turner’s syndrome?

A

Higher than average reading ability
Low performance on spatial and mathematical tasks
Experience difficulty ‘fitting in’
Socially immature.

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43
Q

Real world application of reseach into atypical sex chromosome patterns.

A

It can help with the management of Turner and Klinefelter syndrome.
Herlihy et al. 2011 conducted a study with 87 australian individuals with Klinefelter’s and found that those diagnosed and treated at a young age experienced significant benefits compared to those diagnosed in adulthood.

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44
Q

Sampling issues and Klinefelter’s syndrome.

A

In general, only the people with exaggerated symptoms of Klinefelters are diagnosed and this created a sampling issue.
Bodoa et al. (2009) report that prospective studies have produced an accurate picture of the characteristics and many people with the syndrome do not experience significant psychological problems and many are highly sccessful.
This suggests that the typical picture of Klinefelter’s and Turner’s may be exaggerated.

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45
Q

What is a strength of research into atypical sex chromosome syndromes in terms of the nature/nurture debate?

A

It contributes to the nature/nurture debate.
By comapring people who have the syndrome with chromosomal-typical individuals, it becomes possible to see differnces between the two groups.
It may be logically inferred that these differences have a biological basis and are a direct result of the abnormal chromosomal structure.
This supports the view that innate ‘nature’ influences have a powerful effect on psychology and behaviour.

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46
Q

Counterpoint to the nature/nuture debate involving atypical sex chromosome patterns.

A

There is not a causal relationship between the atypical chromosomal patterns associated with the disorders and the differences in behaviour seen in these individuals.
It could be that envrionmental and social influence are more responsible.
For example people with Turner syndrome could be treated ‘immaturely’ by people around them and so are socially immature.
This shows that it may be wrong to assume that psychological and behavioural differences in people with atypical sex chromosome patterns are due to nature.

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47
Q

What is gender identity?

A

A child recognises that they are a boy or a girl and possesses the ability to label others as such.
In Kohlberg’s theory, gender identity is acquired around age 2 years.

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48
Q

What is gender stability?

A

Happens around age 4 years.
A child understands that their own gender is fixed and they will be a man or woman when they are older.

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49
Q

What is gender constancy?

A

Usually reached by age 6 or 7 years.
A child realises that gender remains over time and situations.
They begin to identify with people of their own gender and start to behave in stereotypical gender-appropriate ways.

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50
Q

Is Kohlberg’s theory as developmental theory?

A

Yes- gradual changes between stages

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51
Q

What is stage 1 of Kohlberg’s theory?

A

Gender identity.
Around age 2.
The understanding of gender does not stretch past simple labelling.
Often children of this age group do not view gender as fixed.

52
Q

What is stage 2 of Kohlberg’s theory?

A

Gender stability.
Around age 4.
Realise they will stay the same gender but cannot apply this logic to other people.
They are easily confused by external changes in appearance.

53
Q

What is stage 3 of Kohlberg’s theory?

A

Gender constancy.
Around age 6.
Recognise gender stays constant across time and situations.

54
Q

What happens at the gender constancy stage related to social learning theory?

A

Find gender-appropriate role models.
This connects to social learning theory.

55
Q

At what stage does gender stereotyping start to develop?

A

Gender constancy

56
Q

What is research support of Kohlberg’s Theory?

A

Damon (1977) told children a story about George, a boy who liked to play with dolls.
Four year olds said it was fine for George to play with dolls but the six year olds viewed it as wrong.
They had started to develop gender stereotyping.
This suggests children who achieved constancy have formed stereotypes regarding gender-appropriate behaviour.

57
Q

What is a counterpoint to research support for Kohlberg’s theory?

A

Bussey and Bandura (1999) found that children as young as four reported ‘feeling good’ about playing with gender-appropriate toys and ‘bad’ about doing the opposite.
This contradicts what Kohlberg’s theory would predict but may instead support gender schema theory.

58
Q

What is an issue with Kohlberg’s theory relating to methods?

A

Supporting research relies on unsatisfactory methods to assess gender constancy.
Bem (1989) criticised the methodology used in many studies of the link between gender and cognitive development.
The key test of gender constancy in such studies is whether a child understands that gender stays the same despite changes in appearance and context.
Bem argues that it is not surprising children are confused by this as in our culture this is how we differentiate one gender to another.
The best way to differentiate gender is through physical appearance which children do not understand.
Bem found 40% of 3-5 year olds were able to demonstrate constancy if shown a naked photo to the child first.
This suggests the typical way of testing gender constancy may misrepresent what children actually know.

59
Q

What is a limitation of Kohlberg’s theory in terms of gender constancy- Martin et al?

A

There may be different degrees of gender constancy.
Martin et al. (2002) praise Kohlberg’s theory for recognising that children’s understanding of their own and other people’s gender guides their thoughts and behaviour.
They suggest that there may be different degrees of gender constancy.
An initial degree may orient children to the importance of gender and this may develop before the age of 6.
A second degree of constancy may heighten children’s responsiveness to gender norms, particularly under conditions of conflict, such as choosing appropriate clothes or attitudes.
This suggests that constancy may be a more gradual process and may begin earlier than Kohlberg thought.

60
Q

Who suggested the concepts on conservation and egocentrism?

A

Jean Piaget

61
Q

What is conservation?

A

Before conservation a child cannot recognise that a superficial change in appearance does not mean an actual change.
Children develop conservation around ages 5-6.

62
Q

What is egocentrism?

A

Jean Piaget conducted his 3 mountains study.
The children were given 4 different perspectives (theirs, the other person’s and either side) and the child had to choose the one the person opposite them was seeing.
Many children chose the one they saw as they cannot see other’s perspectives.

63
Q

What are gender schema?

A

An organised set of beliefs and expectations related to gender that are derived from experience.
Such schema guide a person’s understanding of their own gender and stereotypically gender-appropriate behaviour in general.

64
Q

Who suggested gender schema theory?

A

Martin and Halverson (1981)

65
Q

Is GST a cognitive developmental theory?

A

Yes

66
Q

What is a similarity between Kohlberg’s theory and GST?

A

They share the view that children develop their understanding of gender by actively structuring their own learning rather than by passively observing and imitating role models, which social learning theory suggests.

67
Q

According to GST when do children develop gender identity?

A

Around the ages of 2-3 years.

68
Q

What happens when children reach gender identity in GST? How does this oppose Kohlberg’s view?

A

They will begin to search the environment for information that encourages development of gender schema.
This contrasts Kohlberg’s view that this process only begins after they have progressed through all three stages, around age 7 with gender constancy.

69
Q

How does gender schema determine behaviour (GST)?

A

Gender schema expands to include a wide range of behaviours and personality traits.
For young children, schema are likely to be formed around stereotypes, such as boys playing with trucks and girls with dolls, and provide a framework that directs experience as well as the child’s understanding of itself.

70
Q

According to GST, by what age do children have a fixed and stereotypical understanding about what is appropriate for their gender?

A

Age 6

71
Q

According to GST, why are children less likely to misremember or disregard information that does not fit with their schema?

A

Children have a fixed and stereotypical idea about what is appropriate for their gender.

72
Q

What are ingroup schema?

A

Schema that are appropriate for their own gender- this children have a much better understanding of this.

73
Q

Do ingroup schema increase a child’s self esteem?

A

Yes

74
Q

What is outgroup schema?

A

The schema for the other gender in which children and much less likely to pay attention to and remember.

75
Q

What happens around the age of 8 (GST)?

A

Children develop elaborate schema for both genders, as opposed to just their own.

76
Q

What is some research support of Gender Schema Theory?

A

Martin and Halverson (1983) found that children under the age of 6 are more likely to remember photographs of stereotypically gender-inappropriate behaviour when tested a week later.
Children tended to change the gender of the person carrying out the gender-inappropriate activity in the photographs when asked to recall them.
This provides support as GST predicts that children under 6 would do this, whereas Kohlberg would predict this would happen when the children are older.

77
Q

What is a limitation of gender schema theory?

A

Gender identity probably develops earlier than Martin and Halverson suggested.
Zosuls et al. (2009) conducted a longitudinal study of 82 children who looked at the onset of gender identity.
Data was obtained from twice-weekly reports from mothers on their children’s language from age 9-21 months, alongside videotaped analysis of the children at play.
The key measure of gender identity was taken to be how and when children labelled themselves as a ‘boy’ or ‘girl’.
This occurred on average at 19 months- almost as soon as children can communicate which suggests that have a gender identity before this but cannot communicate this.

78
Q

What is a counterpoint to Zosuls et al. (2009)?

A

It may not be appropriate to argue about specific ages for Martin and Halverson’s theory.
They suggest that the key point is the shifts in a child’s thinking and that the ages are averages and not obsoletes.
Children could move through these stages faster or slower than others.
This suggests that Zosuls et al.’s findings are not a fundamental criticism of the theory.

79
Q

What is the oedipus complex?

A

Freud’s explanation of how a boy resolves his love for his mother and feelings of rivalry towards his father by identifying with his father.

80
Q

What is the electra complex?

A

Neo-Freudian Carl Jung suggested that in girls, an attraction to and envy of their father is resolved through identification with their mother.

81
Q

What is identification?

A

A desire to be associated with a particular person or group often because the person/group possesses certain desirable characteristics.

82
Q

What is internalisation?

A

An individual adopts the attitudes and/or behaviour of another.

83
Q

What are the five psychosexual stages?

A

Oral
Anal
Phallic
Latent
Genital

84
Q

At what age does the phallic stage take place?

A

3 to 6 years

85
Q

What occurs at the phallic stage?

A

Gender development .
Prior to this stage children have no concept of gender identity, they have no understanding of ‘male’ or ‘female’ so do not categorise themselves or others in that way.

86
Q

When do the oedipus and electra complex take place?

A

Phallic stage

87
Q

Describe what happens during the oedipus complex.

A

Boys develop incestuous feelings towards their mother and they harbour a jealous and murderous hate fir their father who stands in the way of the boy possessing his mother.
However, the boy also recognises that his father is more powerful than he is and then develops castration anxiety.
To resolve the context, the boys gives up his lover for his mother and begins to identify with his father.

88
Q

Describe what happens during the electra complex.

A

Girls experience penis envy, seeing themselves and their mother as being in competition for their father’s love.
Girls develop a double-resentment towards their mother.
First, the mother is a love rival standing in the way of the father and second the mother is blamed by the daughter for having no penis.
Over time, girls will come to accept that they will never have a penis and will substitute penis envy with the desire to have children, identifying with their mothers as a result.

89
Q

What is identification and internalisation?

A

Children of both sexes identify (identification) with the same-gender parent as a means of resolving their respective complexes.
Boys adopt the attitudes and values of the father and girls adopt those of their mother.
This involves children taking on board the gender identity of the same-gender parent, a process known as internalisation.
Eventually, at the end of the phallic stage, both sexes receive a ‘second-hand’ gender identity all at once.

90
Q

What is Little Hans?

A

Evidence for the Oedipus complex.
Hans was a 5 year old boy with a fear of being bitten by a horse.
Hans’s fear appeared to have stemmed from an incident when he had seen a horse collapse and die in a street.
However, Freud’s interpretation was that Hans’ fear represented his fear of castration .
Freud suggested that Hans had transferred his fear of his father onto horses via the unconscious defence mechanism of displacement.

91
Q

What is a limitation of Freud involving scientific credibility?

A

Freud has often been criticised for the lack of rigour in his methods.
Many of his concepts such as castration anxiety are untestable because they are largely unconscious- this contrasts other theories of gender that are based on objective, verifiable evidence.
This makes his theory pseudoscientific as his key ideas cannot be falsified and proved wrong.
This questions the validity of Freud’s theory as it is not based on sound scientific evidence.

92
Q

What is a limitation of Freud’s gender development theory in terms of women?

A

Freud did very little research from women and Carl Jung created most of the theories.
The penis envy theory is very androcentric as the era Freud was living in.
The ideas that women’s gender development is founded on a desire to want to be like a man is an androcentric bias.

93
Q

What is a strength of Freud’s gender development theory?

A

There is some support for the role of the Oedipus complex in gender development.
Rekers and Morey (1990) rated the gender identity of 49 boys aged 3-11 years based on interviews with their families and children themselves.
Of those who were judged to be ‘gender disturbed’, 75% had neither their biological father nor a substitute father living with them.
This suggests that being raised with no father may have a negative impact upon gender identity.

94
Q

What is the counterpoint for the strength of Freud’s gender development theory?

A

The relationship between absent fathers and problems of gender identity is not supported.
Bos and Sandfort (2010) compared data from 63 children where both parents were homosexual/lesbian and 68 from heterosexual families.
Children raised by homosexual families felt less pressure to conform to gender stereotypes and were less likely to assume their own gender was superior, but there was no differences in terms of psychosocial adjustment or gender identity.
This contradicts Freud’s theory as it suggests that fathers are not necessary for healthy gender identity development.

95
Q

What is social learning theory?

A

A way of explaining behaviour that includes both direct and indirect reinforcement, combining learning theory with the role of cognitive factors.

96
Q

What are the four mediational processes?

A

Attention
Retention
Motivation
Reproduction

97
Q

Name four things which can shape children gender identity.

A

Culture
Parents
Media
Peers

98
Q

What is direct reinforcement?

A

Children are more likely to be reinforced for demonstrating behaviour that is stereotypically gender-appropriate.
The way in which boys and girls are encouraged to show distinct gender-appropriate behaviour is called differential reinforcement.
It is through differential reinforcement that a child learns their gender identity.

99
Q

What is indirect reinforcement?

A

If the consequences of another person’s behaviour are favourable, that behaviour is more likely to be imitated by a child.
If the consequences of the behaviour are seen to be unfavourable, the behaviour is less likely to be copies. An example of this would be a boy being teased by another boy for playing with a doll.

100
Q

What is identification?

A

The process whereby a child attaches themselves to a person who is seen to display desirable characteristics - these people are known as role models.
Role models are usually the same gender as the child.

101
Q

What is modelling?

A

The precise demonstration of a behaviour that may be imitated by an observer.
The same term is also used to explain learning from the observer’s perspective.
An example of this would be when a young girl copies her mother setting the table - she is modelling the behaviour she witnessed.

102
Q

What is a limitation of social learning theory to explain gender development?

A

It does not provide an adequate explanation of how learning processes change with age.
The general implication of SLT is that modelling of gender-appropriate behaviour can occur at any age.
However it is illogical that children who are age 2 learn the same as children who are 9.
This conflicts with Kohlberg’s Theory which says that children do not become active in their gender development until they reach gender constancy.

103
Q

What is a strength of SLT in relation of culture?

A

It can explain cultural changes in stereotypically gender-appropriate behaviour.
There has been a less clear-cut distinction between what people regard as stereotypically masculine and feminine behaviour in many societies today when compare to the mid 1900s.
There has been no corresponding change in peoples basic biology within this time and so SLT explains this better than the biological approach.
The shift in social expectations and cultural norms over the years has meant new forms of gender behaviour are now unlikely to be punished and may be reinforced.

104
Q

What is a strength of social learning theory as an explanation for gender development?

A

There is research support.
Smith and Lloyd (1978) involved babies aged 4-6 months who (irrespective of sex) were dressed half the time in boys’ clothes and half the time in girls’ clothes.
When observed interacting with adults, babies assumed to be a ‘boy’ were more likely to be given a hammer-shaped rattle and encouraged to be adventurous and active.
When the same babies dressed as girls they were mire likely to be handed a doll and told they were ‘pretty’.
This suggests that gender-appropriate behaviour is stamped in at an early age through differential reinforcement.

105
Q

What is culture?

A

The ideas, customs and social behaviour of a particular group of people or society.

106
Q

What is media?

A

Communication channels, such as TV, film and books, through which news, entertainment, education and data are made available.

107
Q

What are gender roles?

A

A set of behaviours and attitudes that are considered typical of one gender and atypical of the other.

108
Q

What does Mead’s (1935) study show?

A

Cultural differences (nurture)

109
Q

Mead (1935)

A

Investigated gender roles of cultural groups across Papua New Guinea.
- The Arapesh were gentle and responsive (stereotype of women in west)
- The Mundugumor were aggressive and hostile (stereotype of men in west)
- The Tchambuli women were dominant and they organised village life whereas men were passive and considered to be ‘decorative’ (reverse of stereotypes in west).
This suggests that there may not be a direct biological relationship between sex and gender and that gender roles may be culturally determines.

110
Q

What studies explain cultural similarities in terms of nature?

A

Buss (1995) found consistent patterns in mate preference in 37 countries across all continents. In all cultures, women sought men who could offer wealth and resources whereas men looked for youth and physical attractiveness in a potential partner.
Munroe and Munroe (1975) revealed that in most societies, division of labour is organised along gender lines.

111
Q

How does the media relate to self-efficacy?

A

The media may give information to men and women in terms of the likely success, or otherwise, of adopting these behaviours.
Seeing other people perform gender-appropriate behaviours increases a child’s belief that they are capable of carrying out such behaviours in the future.
Mitra et al. (2019) analysed the attitudes of people in India who had watched a detective drama which was designed to challenge deep-rooted gender stereotypes. Girls who watched the programme were more likely to see themselves as capable of working outside the home than non-viewers. This suggested that their self-efficacy had changed.

112
Q

Relate rigid stereotypes to the influence of media on gender roles.

A

The media portrays men as independent whereas women are depicted as dependent and unambitious (Bussey and Bandura 1999).
Furnham and Farragher (2000) found in TV adverts that men were more likely to be shown in an autonomous roles in a professional context whereas women were often occupying familial roles within domestic settings.
This suggests that the media may play a role in reinforcing widespread social stereotypes concerning gender-appropriate behaviour.

113
Q

What is a limitation of Mead’s research?

A

Mead has been accused of making generalisations based on a short period of study.
Freeman (1983) conducted a follow-up study of people from Papua New Guinea and argued that Mead’s findings were flawed as she had been misled by some of her participants and her preconceptions influenced her reading of events.
This is an example of both observer bias and ethnocentrism and means her conclusions may not be accurate.

114
Q

What is some research support of Mead (1935)?

A

Hofstede (2001) argues that in industrialised cultures the changing status and expectations of women are a function of their increasingly active role in the workplace and away from the domestic sphere.
This has led to a breakdown of traditional stereotypes in advanced industrialised societies.
In traditional societies women still occupy the role of house-maker as a result of social, cultural and religious pressures.
This suggests that gender roles are very much determined by cultural context.

115
Q

What is a strength of research into media influence on gender roles?

A

Cultivation theory argues that more time individuals spend ‘living’ in the media world, the more likely they are to believe that this reflects social reality.
Bond and Drogos (2014) found a positive correlation between time spent watching Jersey Shore and permissive attitudes towards sex.
This effect was still found to be true when researchers controlled for the influence of such factors as existing sexual attitudes, parental attitudes and religious beliefs.
This suggests the media ‘cultivates’ perception of reality and this effects gender behaviour.

116
Q

What is a limitation of gender roles and the media?

A

There may not be a causal relationship.
Durkin (1985) argues that even very young children are not passive and uncritical recipients of media messages. In fact, norms within the child’s family may be the bigger determinant in the child’s gender attitudes and behaviour. If media representations confirm existing gender norms held by the family then these are likely to be reinforced by the child’s mind. If not, then such representations are likely to be rejected.

117
Q

What is gender dysphoria?

A

Used to describe when a person experiences discomfort or distress because there is a mismatch between their sex assigned at birth and their gender identity.
This is also the clinical diagnosis for someone who doesn’t feel comfortable with the sex they were assigned at birth.

118
Q

Is gender dysphoria recognised in the DSM-5?

A

Yes

119
Q

What is brain sex theory?

A

The BST is the structure involved in emotional responses and also in male sexual behaviour in rats. This area is larger in men than women and has been found to be female-sized and transgender females.
In a study with 6 mtf transgender individuals it showed that they had an average BST neuron number in the female range (Kruiver et al. 2000)

120
Q

How do genetic factors influence atypical gender development?

A

Coolidge et al (2002) assessed 157 twin pairs (96 MZ and 61 DZ) for evidence of gender dysphoria. They found that 62% of the variance could be accounted for by genetic factors. Thus suggests there is a biological component.

121
Q

What is a strength of brain sex theory?

A

There may be other brain difference associated with gender dysphoria.
Rametti et al. (2011) studies another sexually dimorphic aspect of the brain- white matter as there are regional differences in the proportion of white matter in males or females.
They analysed the brains of both male and female transgender individuals before they began hormone treatment .
In most cases, the amount and distribution of white matter corresponded more closely to the gender the individuals identified themselves as being rather than their biological sex.

122
Q

What is a limitation of brain sex theory?

A

Its central claims have been challenged.
Hulshoff Pol et al (2006) studies changes in transgender individuals’ brains using MRI scans taken during hormone treatment.
The scans showed that the size of the BST changed significantly over that period.
The study by Kruijver et al. studies the BST post-mortem and after transgender individuals had received hormone treatment during gender reassignment treatment .

123
Q

What is the relationship between the psychoanalytic theory and atypical gender development?

A

Ovesey and Person (1973) emphasise social relationships within the family as the cause of gender dysphoria.
They argue that gender dysphoria in biological males is caused by a boy experiencing extreme separation anxiety before gender identity has been established.
the boy fantasises of a symbiotic fusion with his mother to relieve the anxiety, and the danger of separation removed. Therefore becomes the mother and adopts a woman’s gender identity.
Stoller (1973) found in interviews GD biological males display overly close relationships with their mothers suggesting stronger female identification and thus conflicted gender identity in the long term.

124
Q

What is a limitation of the psychoanalytic theory?

A

Oversey and Person’s explanation does not provide an adequate account of gender dysphoria in biological females as the theory only applies to transgender women.
Rekers (1986) found that gender dysphoria in those assigned male at birth is more likely to be associated with the absence of the father then the fear of separation from the mother.

125
Q

What is McClintock (2015)? (social constructivism)

A

Cites the case of individuals with a genetic condition in the Sambia in New Guinea.
This causes some biological males to be categorised as girls at birth.
At puberty they produce an increased amount of testosterone so their biology develops.
This condition was common amoung the Sambia and routinely accepted that some are ‘females-then-males’.
Since this culture has had contact with other cultures however, the ‘females-then-males’ are now judges as having a pathological form of gender dysphoria.

126
Q

What is the social constructivism explanation of atypical gender development?

A

Gender identity does not reflect underlying biological differences between people and instead these concepts are ‘invented’ by societies.
For people who experience gender dysphoria , the gender ‘confusion’ arises because society forces people to be either a man or woman and they must ‘pick a side’ and act accordingly.
From this perspective, gender dysphoria is not a pathological condition but a social phenomenon which arises when people are required to choose one of two particular paths.

127
Q

What is a strength of social constructivism?

A

Not all cultures have two gender.
This can be seen in the Sambia of New Guinea.
This fact is a challenge to traditional binary classifications of male and female,
The fact the increasing number of people now describe themselves as non-binary suggests that cultural understanding is only now beginning to ‘catch up’ with the lived experience of many.
This suggests hat gender identity and dysphoria are best seen as a social construction rather than biological fact.

A Level Psychology (10 decks)

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