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Year 1 Biology Ellie M > Membranes and Signal Transduction > Flashcards

Membranes and Signal Transduction Flashcards

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1
Q

What are the two types of complex lipids?

A 
Neutral lipids (storage fats and oils)
Polar lipids (lipids found in cell membranes)
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2
Q

What is a phosphoglyceride?

A

A type of glycerolipid which is polar

Contains 2 fatty acids

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3
Q

What type of molecule is a fatty acid?

A

Amphipathic - has hydrophilic and hydrophobic areas

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4
Q

How many double bonds do unsaturated fatty acids have?

A

1-4

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5
Q

How do phosphoglycerides arrange themselves in the cell membrane?

A

Into a bilayer

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6
Q

How are different membrane fractions isolated?

A

Differential centrifugation - filter the homogenate and centrifuge until you have a second segment, which is a mixture of mitochondria, chloroplasts, lysosomes and peroxisomes
Then use equilibrium density gradient centrifugation, which separates the different layers of membranes due to their differing densities

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7
Q

Lipid composition is…

A

membrane-specific

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8
Q

How is the fluidity of a membrane determined?

A

By temperature and lipid composition

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9
Q

What happens to the lipid bilayer as temperature decreases?

A

It becomes a rigid crystalline structure, which is a big problem

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10
Q

How do sessile organisms maintain membrane fluidity at low temperatures?

A

They alter the lipid composition of the membrane

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11
Q

How is fluidity increased in the lipid bilayer

A

It is increased by the degree of unsaturation of the phosphoglycerides in the membrane, as unsaturated fatty acids put a kink in the hydrocarbon tail of the phospholipid

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12
Q

How do plants respond to reduced temperatures?

A

They decrease the ratio of saturated to unsaturated fatty acids esterified to membrane phosphoglycerides - there will be more phosphoglycerides containing polyunsaturated fatty acids. This together with sterols keep the membranes fluid

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13
Q

What are sterols?

A

Present to regulate membrane fluidity and modulate the activity of membrane-bound enzymes

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14
Q

What enzyme is responsible for inserting double bonds into fatty acids?

A

Fatty acid desaturase

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15
Q

Amino acids with polar side chains

A

Hydrophilic and tend to be on the outside of proteins

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16
Q

Non-polar amino acids

A

Hydrophobic and are found in the core of proteins, avoiding water

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17
Q

What are the three types of membrane protein?

A

Integral proteins
Lipid-anchored proteins
Peripheral proteins

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18
Q

Example of integral protein

A

Glycophorin A
Composed of two monomers
Each monomer contains 3 distinct segments called domains
The extracellular and cytosolic domains are largely named up of polar amino acids
The membrane spanning region by contract is made up largely of non-polar hydrophobic amino acids

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19
Q

What method was used to find evidence for the for the diffusion of proteins across the cell membrane’s surface?

A

Fluorescence recovery after photobleaching (FRAP)

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20
Q

What is the process of fluorescence recovery after photobleaching (FRAP)?

A
  1. Firstly, specific meme brand proteins are labelled with a fluorescent agent
  2. Bleach an area of the cell membrane with a laser, removing the fluorescent agent proteins
  3. Measure the intensity of the fluorescence in in the bleached area. If it begins to increase, it suggests that fluorescent proteins from other areas of the cell membrane have diffused into the bleached area
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21
Q

Roles of biological membranes

A

Cell-cell recognition
Semi-permeable barrier
Platform for linked reactions
Compartmentalisation

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22
Q

What is signal transduction?

A

The study of cellular events responsible for coupling an extracellular stimulus to its characteristic intracellular response

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23
Q

What is the signal transduction field of research called?

A

Intracellular signalling our stimulus-response coupling

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24
Q

What is a property of receptors?

A

They are highly specific to the ligand they bind to

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25
Q

Examples of luganda

A

Insulin
Acetylcholine
Plant hormones such as auxin

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26
Q

What is a property of ligand-receptor binding?

A

It is reversible

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27
Q

Receptors have different …. for their ligands

A

Affinities

A high affinity receptor will bind to its ligand at very low concentrations

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28
Q

What does ligand binding induce?

A

A conformational change of the receptor - ligand alters the tertiary/quaternary structure of the receptor, so the receptor can interact with other proteins

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29
Q

What are intracellular second messengers?

A

Simple molecules that amplify a signal
The concentration of the second messenger increases in the cytosol after cell stimulation
The concentration of the intracellular messenger decreases when the stimulus is removed
An increase in the concentration of the intracellular second messenger activates target proteins to relay the signal further into the cell

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30
Q

What are 2 examples of intracellular second messengers

A

Ca2+

Cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP)

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31
Q

What is an example of protein modification?

A

Protein phosphorylation

  1. Transfer of a phosphate from ATP to an amino acid on a target protein is catalysed by the enzyme protein kinase
  2. Phosphorylation results in a change in the conformational of the substrate
  3. If the substrate is another enzyme, then protein phosphorylation could activate the enzyme to relay the signal
32
Q

What enzyme dephosphorylates protein substrates?

A

Protein phosphatase

33
Q

What are second messenger activated protein kinases?

A

Activated when the concentration of an intracellular second messenger is increased in the cytosol following cell stimulation

34
Q

3 examples of second messenger activated protein kinases

A
  1. Protein kinase A (PKA) is activated by cAMP
  2. Calcium dependent protein kinase (CDPK) is activated by Ca2+
  3. Protein kinase C (PKC) is activated by Ca2+ and diacylglycerol
35
Q

What are G protein coupled receptors?

A

A large family of receptors involved in many responses, present in plants animals and yeast

36
Q

What is protein kinase?

A

A kinase enzyme that modifies other proteins by chemically adding phosphate groups to them

37
Q

What is an example of signal transduction through G protein coupled receptors?

A

Cholecystokinin (CCK) Signalling

38
Q

What is cholecystokinin?

A

CCK is a peptide secreted by the mucosal cells of the duodenum into the bloodstream. It’s secretion is increased when the mucosal cells encounter the products of digestion

39
Q

What does CCK do when it reaches the pancreas?

A

It causes pancreatic acinar cells to secrete digestive enzymes including alpha amylase into the duodenum (via the bile duct), which helps with the digestion of food

40
Q

What does binding of CCK to its receptor result in?

A

In increase in the concentration of free calcium ions in the cytosol of the acinar cell. This triggers the secretion of alpha amylase into the common bile duct

41
Q

In the acinar cell, what are the calcium ions acting as?

A

Intracellular second messengers

42
Q

What is the structure of the CCK receptor of acinar cells?

A

Single polypeptide
7 transmembrane helices
Has a domain on the cytosolic side which allows it to interact with the G protein

43
Q

What is the structure of the G protein?

A 
3 subunits (alpha, beta and gamma)
Gamma and alpha subunits are lipid-associates proteins attached to the plasma membrane by a fatty acid modification
44
Q

How do G proteins get their name?

A

Because they bind GTP (guanosine triphosphate) and GDP

45
Q

What happens to the CCK receptor and the G protein once CCK binds to its receptor?

A

This activated the G protein associated with the CCK receptor. The G protein diffuses along the plane of the plasma membrane until it encounters the next component in the CCK signal transduction pathway

46
Q

What is the next component that the G protein diffuses to?

A 
Phospholipase C (PLC)
When the G protein interacts with the PLC it becomes activated
47
Q

What does phospholipase C do?

A

PLC hydrolyses a rare membrane phosphoglyceride called PIP2, producing IP3 and DAG. These are also intracellular second messengers

48
Q

What is PIP2?

A

phosphatidyl inositol 4,5-biphosphate

49
Q

What is IP3?

A

inositol 1,4,5-triphosphate

50
Q

What is DAG?

A

1,2-diacylglycerol

51
Q

What does IP3 do after it is activated?

A

It diffuses into the cytoplasm and binds to a receptor on the endoplasmic reticulum

52
Q

What does the ER act as?

A

A calcium ion store

53
Q

What happens as a result of IP3 binding to its receptor on the endoplasmic reticulum?

A

Calcium ions are released into the cytosol

54
Q

What happens as a result of IP3 releasing Ca2+ into the cytosol and increasing its concentration?

A

Protein kinase C (PKC) migrates to the plasma membrane where it is activated by DAG

55
Q

What does activated PKC do?

A

Participates in the reactions that control alpha amylase secretion

56
Q

Therefore, what is the result of an increase of PLC activity?

A

The activation of PKC and an increase in alpha amylase secretion

57
Q

How is stimulation stopped, reducing alpha amylase secretion?

A

ATPase enzymes pump Ca2+ out of the cytosol and back into the endoplasmic reticulum

58
Q

What is a second example of signal transduction through G protein coupled receptors?

A

The action of adrenaline on skeletal muscle

59
Q

What happens when an animal is frightened?

A

The adrenal gland secretes adrenaline into the bloodstream

60
Q

What are the 2 major roles of adrenaline in skeletal muscle?

A
  1. It promotes the breakdown of glycogen to glucose-1-phosphate. This is then oxidised through glycolysis to provide the ATP required for sustained muscle contraction
  2. It inhibits the synthesis of glycogen
61
Q

What enzyme catalysed the synthesis of cAMP from ATP?

A

Andenylyl cyclase (AC)

62
Q

What enzyme catalyses the degradation of cAMP to AMP

A

cAMP phosphodiesterase (cAMP-PDE)

63
Q

What is the target for cAMP?

A

Protein kinase A

through a series of steps ATP is produced for immediate muscle contraction

64
Q

What bacteria causes cholera?

A

Vibrio cholera

Infected water supplies

65
Q

What does the cholera bacterium do once ingested?

A

Secretes a protein called cholera toxin

66
Q

What does the cholera toxin do?

A

The beta subunits of the toxin bind to a gut receptor on the intestinal mucosal cells lining the gut. The alpha subunit enters the cell

67
Q

What does the alpha subunit do once in the cytoplasm of the mucosal cell?

A

The alpha subunit is an enzyme so it chemically modifies the G protein that activates adenylyl cyclase

68
Q

What is a result of the G protein being activated by the subunit of the cholera toxin?

A

It is locked in its active state, so adenylyl cyclase is constantly activated and can’t be switched off. As a result there is a constant rise in the concentration of cAMP in the cells lining the gut

69
Q

What is the result of the rising concentration of cAMP in the cells lining the gut?

A

It causes a continuous activation of PKA that phosphorylates a chloride ion channel and inhibits the Na+/H+ exchanger

70
Q

What is the net result of the PKA’s affect on the mucosal cell?

A

A massive loss of water and electrolytes from the blood through the mucosal cells to the gut

71
Q

What is the treatment for cholera?

A

Oral rehydration with a glucose electrolyte solution

72
Q

What bacteria causes whooping cough?

A

Bordetella pertussis

73
Q

What is secretes by the whooping cough bacterium?

A

Pertussis toxin

74
Q

What does the pertussis toxin do?

A

Chemically modifies a G protein, locking it in its inactive state. This results in a massive activation of adenylyl cyclase because a G protein usually inhibits the action of adenylyl cyclase

75
Q

What is the structure of the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor?

A 
5 subunits (two alpha, one beta, one gamma and one delta)
Each subunit is a single polypeptide containing 4 transmembrane helices (M1-M4)
The 5 subunits form a metameric structure with a pore in the centre
The M2 helix from each subunit faces into and lines the pore, forming the gate
Each helix has a characteristic kink which forms a constriction in the channel
76
Q

What happens when acetylcholine binds to the alpha subunits?

A

The gates open and Na+ enters the muscle cell. This is because binding of the acetylcholine to the alpha subunits causes all the subunits to rotate very slightly and this is sufficient to swing the kinked M2 helices outwards, opening the channel

77
Q

What plant hormone builds up in drought and causes stomata closure?

A

Abscisic avid (ABA)

Year 1 Biology Ellie M (28 decks)

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