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MEDS6013 Flashcards

1
Q
  1. Using questionnaires in research is an example of a:
    a) Qualitative approach
    b) Quantitative approach
    c) Mixed methods approach
    d) All of the above
A

b) Quantitative approach

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2
Q
  1. Which of the following designs is lowest on the hierarchy of evidence (also known as the pyramid of evidence):
    a) Case series
    b) Cross sectional
    c) Prospective cohort
    d) Randomised control trial
A

a) Case series

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3
Q
  1. Describe two features of probability sampling (two sentences - 2 marks)
A

– Provides generalisability

– can be time consuming

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4
Q
  1. Consider this article citation:

Bohn, B., Herbst, A., Pfeifer, M., Krakow, D., Zimny, S., Kopp, F., . . . Holl, R. W. (2015). Impact of physical activity on glycemic control and prevalence of cardiovascular risk factors in adults with type 1 diabetes: A cross-sectional multicenter study of 18,028 patients. Diabetes Care, 38(8), 1536-1543. http://dx.doi.org/10.2337/dc15-0030

The authors undertook interviews with adults who have been diagnosed with type 1 diabetes.

a) True
b) False

A

True

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5
Q

What is a positivist research design?

A

Positivist prefer scientific quantitative methods,

Positivists prefer quantitative methods such as social surveys, structured questionnaires and official statistics because these have good reliability and representativeness.
Positivists see society as shaping the individual and believe that ‘social facts’ shape individual action.

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6
Q

What is a interpretivist research design?

A

Interpretivists prefer humanistic qualitative methods

An Interpretivist approach to social research would be much more qualitative, using methods such as unstructured interviews or participant observation

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7
Q

1) Which of the following describes single-blind experiments?
a) They are experiments in which the subjects don’t know whether they are receiving a real or fake drug or treatment
b) They help reduce placebo effects
c) They help reduce bias in research
d) All of the above

A

d) All of the above

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8
Q

2) In what type of study does a researcher study an individual subject in depth?
a) Naturalistic observation
b) Laboratory observation
c) Case study
d) Survey

A

c) Case study

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9
Q

3) How can we determine if a test has good validity?
a) It produces the same result when it is given at different times to the same group of people
b) It produces the same result no matter which version of the test is used
c) It measures what it is supposed to measure
d) All of the questions on it can be answered accurately by the subject

A

a) It produces the same result when it is given at different times to the same group of people

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10
Q

4) What is the variable called that a researcher manipulates in an experiment?
a) Dependent variable
b) Independent variable
c) Extraneous variable
d) None of the above

A

b) Independent variable

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11
Q

5) The social desirability bias can affect which of the following?
a) The validity of a test
b) The reliability of a test
c) Self-report data
d) None of the above

A

a) The validity of a test

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12
Q

6) Which of the following is a research method that allows a researcher to get information about a large number of subjects relatively inexpensively and easily?
a) Naturalistic observation
b) Case study
c) Laboratory observation
d) Survey

A

d) Survey

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13
Q

7) When doing research involving deception with human subjects, researchers have an obligation to do which of the following?

a) Tell subjects the truth about the study’s purpose and methods after the study is completed
b) Prevent mental and physical harm to subjects
c) Let subjects withdraw from the study at any time if they don’t want to keep participating
d) All of the above

A

d) All of the above

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14
Q
  1. Which of the following is NOT a method of quantitative research?
    a. Grounded Theory Research
    b. Correlational Research
    c. Quasi-Experimental Research
    d. Experimental Research
A

a. Grounded Theory Research

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15
Q
  1. Deductive reasoning is applied in:
    a. Qualitative research
    b. Quantitative research
    c. Action research
    d. Applied research
A

b. Quantitative research

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16
Q
  1. Which of the following is a qualitative research design where lived experiences of individuals are examined in their “life-world”?
    a. Ethnography
    b. Ethology
    c. Phenomenology
    d. Grounded theory
A

c. Phenomenology

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17
Q
  1. Which of the following is a characteristic of qualitative research?
    a. Deductive process
    b. Control over the context
    c. Fixed research design
    d. Inductive process
A

d. Inductive process

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18
Q
  1. Qualitative research design involves
    a. Emergent design
    b. Correlative design
    c. Experimental design
    d. Cohort design
A

a. Emergent design

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19
Q
  1. Describe two features of a phenomenological study
A

The goal of qualitative phenomenological research is to describe a “lived experience” of a phenomenon.

The first principle of analysis of phenomenological data is to use an emergent strategy.

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20
Q
  1. The research design in which the area inquiry is the manner by which people make sense of social interactions is:
    a. Grounded theory
    b. Phenomenology
    c. Symbolic interactionism
    d. Ethnography
A

a. Grounded theory

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21
Q
  1. Define the term triangulation
A

Triangulation is a powerful technique that facilitates validation of data through cross verification from two or more sources.

  • application and combination of several research methods in the study of the same phenomenon.
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22
Q
  1. The process of identifying and holding in abeyance any preconceived beliefs and opinions one has about the phenomena of understanding is:
    a. Bricolage
    b. Content Analysis
    c. Bracketing
    d. Bricoleur
A

c. Bracketing

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23
Q
  1. A design that unfolds in the course of a qualitative study as the researcher makes ongoing design:
    a. Experimental design
    b. Quasi-experimental design
    c. Exploratory design
    d. Emergent design
A

m

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24
Q

Definition of Rigor

A

(Qualitative) (a judgement call) achieving a balance between emic and etic points of view. Trustworthiness of the ethical and credibility of both quantitative and qualitative researches.

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25
Q

Definition of Validity

A

Validity refers to how well a test measures what it is purported to measure.

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26
Q

Definition of Reliability

A

quantitative) This is usually has to do with HOW the data were collected (data is plural by the way and so if you want to be a really cool research nerd you’ll remember that fact!)

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27
Q

Definition of Credibility

A

(qualitative) – establishes that the results of qualitative research are credible or believable from the perspective of the participant in the research.

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28
Q

Qualitative Research design types-

A
  • Descriptive exploratory
  • Phenomenology-what is the lived experience? What is the meaning? What is the quality?
  • Grounded theory- examines processes, inter relationships, interviews, examinations, focuses on social processes and meaning.
  • Ethnography-understanding culture of a group, usually about patterns of behaviour within social context of a sub culture
  • Historical- document events.
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29
Q

Quantitative Research Designs

A
  • Critique – is this article going to answer the research question
  • Experimental –quasi experimental.
  • Non-experimental- descriptive- correlational
  • Descriptive design-
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30
Q

What does descriptive statistics allow?

A

Allows the researchers to describe, organise and summarise raw data

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31
Q

What does inferential statistics allow for?

A

It allows researchers to estimate how reliably they can predictions and generalise their findings based on the data

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32
Q

What are the 3 most common measures of variability?

A
  • range
  • variance
  • standard deviation
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33
Q

What is standard deviation?

A

Standard deviation is the square root of the variance- therefore in same units as original measurements

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34
Q

What are the advantages of standard deviation?

A
  • takes all the scores into account
  • can be used to interpret individual scores
  • standard deviation allows the reader to get a feel for the variation the data contain
  • used in calculation of many inferential statistics
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35
Q

What are inferential statistics?

A

It allows inferences or conclusions to be drawn from data

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36
Q

What does descriptive statistics do?

A

It summarises data

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37
Q

There are usually 2 purposes for inferential statistics. What were they?

A
  • estimate how well a sample statistic reflects the population parameter
  • test hypotheses or predictions about population
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38
Q

What do research hypotheses do?

A

Shows that there is some specified relationship between dependent and independent variables

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39
Q

What does a null hypotheses do?

A

Shows that there is no relationship between dependent and independent variables.
It is easier to disprove something than to prove it.

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40
Q

How is trustworthiness/rigor assured in qualitative research?

A

-Credibility (truthfulness)
-Auditability (consistency)
-Transferability (fittingness/applicability)
-Confirmability (no bias or distortion)
through member checking, audit trails, triangulation

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41
Q

Why is rigor so important?

A

Need to know methods can be trusted and can have confidence in results, and using them ie
applying in clinical practice

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42
Q

List four quantitative data collection methods

A

Experiments
Observational
questionnaires
Interviews

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43
Q

Descriptive statistics allow researchers to?

A

describe, organise & summarise raw data

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44
Q

Inferential statistics allow researchers to?

A

Estimate how reliably they can make predictions & generalise their findings based on the data

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45
Q

What is Mixed Methods Research?

A

Research in which the investigator collects and analyses data, integrates the findings and draws inferences using both qualitative and quantitative approaches or methods in a single study.

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46
Q

Why conduct mixed methods research?

A

Seeking convergence and corroboration of results from different methods that are studying same phenomena

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47
Q

what is Methodological Triangulation and what is it used for?

A

Different methods of data collection used in same study

  • Triangulation : usually applied to qualitative research
  • Reduces error/increases rigor
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48
Q

What is the Value of Mixed Methods?

A
  • Potential for more complete & comprehensive research opportunity
  • Can give additional perspectives & insights beyond scope of single design
  • Weaknesses of one method may be counter-balanced by strengths of another
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49
Q

What are the Limitations of using Mixed Methods research?

A
  • Complex
  • Time consuming
  • Involved
  • Resource-intensive
  • Knowledge required of researchers- both qualitative & quantitative knowledge
  • Understanding & acceptance by research community needed
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50
Q

What is the Delphi Technique?

A
  • Uses expert opinion on a clinical practice problem
  • Non-empirical approach (ie no data collection)
  • Useful when experimental approach not feasible
  • Limitation: only represents opinion
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51
Q

What is a systematic review?

A

A summary of the research literature that is focused on a single question.

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52
Q

List some the characteristics of systematic review.

A
  • clearly articulated objectives and questions
  • detailed inclusion and exclusion
  • a comprehensive search
  • critical appraisal of the quality of included studies
  • data analysis (meta-analysis)
  • presentation and synthesis of the findings extracted
  • transparent reported methodology
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53
Q

What are some limitations of systematic reviews?

A
  • badly conducted systematic reviews
  • bias on paper selection
  • influenced by researchers search skills
  • result might not be combined and presented properly
  • language limits
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54
Q

What is the purpose of ethics in research?

A
  • protecting rights of subjects
  • balance of benefits and risks
  • informed consent
55
Q

What is informed consent?

A
  • providing participants with enough information
  • providing information that the participants can understand
  • no coercion/ overt/implied
56
Q

List at least 5 elements of informed consent

A
  • title of agency
  • invitation to participate
  • study purpose/aim
  • right to withdraw
  • voluntary participation
  • Description of risks/benefits
  • assurance of confidentiality/anonymity
  • conflicts of interests declared
  • concluding statement
  • name and contacts of researchers, institution, ethics committee
  • separate consent form
57
Q

What is the point of privacy in research?

A

To conceal all matters relating to the participants

58
Q

What is the purpose of anonymity in research?

A

So that no one can identify study participants

59
Q

What is the purpose of confidentiality in research?

A

So the identities of subjects not linked to information provided therefore require the use of codes.
Data must be securely stored

60
Q

What is variance and what is it used for?

A

Measures the variability that includes every score in the distribution rather than only 2 scores
-takes into account every individual score

61
Q

In qualitative research, trustworthiness of data collected can be ensured by?

A

Member checking

62
Q

One role of descriptive statistics is to?

A

Summarise the data.

63
Q

Results section of research papers, summarise findings with 2 major goals. These are?

A
  • to describe/explain phenomenon of interest

- to predict aspects related to that phenomenon

64
Q

Observing the social interactions of pre-school children in a playgroup using pre-determined items on an
observation checklist

Qualitative research

Quantitative research

Both

A

Qualitative research

65
Q

Studying the behaviour of newborn infants by observing and recording their second-by-second movements during their first 72 hours of life following birth

Qualitative research

Quantitative research

Both

A

Both

66
Q

Using a written questionnaire with closed-ended questions (eg. Yes/No) to survey a large number of bushfire victims who may be experiencing post-traumatic stress disorder

Qualitative research

Quantitative research

Both

A

Qualitative research

67
Q

Observing whether drivers conform to road rules by counting the number of drivers who disobey a stop sign at an intersection

Qualitative research

Quantitative research

Both

A

Quantitative research

68
Q

Observing the effects of using a treat as a reward to teach a dog to sit on command

Qualitative research

Quantitative research

Both

A

Qualitative research

69
Q

Investigating the effects of observing violence by analysing and interpreting children’s drawings after they have watched violent cartoons on televison.

Qualitative research

Quantitative research

Both

A

Qualitative research

70
Q

Testing the relationship between the scores on an intelligence test and scores on a personality test

Qualitative research

Quantitative research

Both

A

Quantitative research

71
Q

Conducting an experiment to investigate whether having regular rest breaks during a prolonged study session improves performance on a test.

Qualitative research

Quantitative research

Both

A

Quantitative research

72
Q

Investigating ways of which females are portrayed in the print media by analysing newspaper and magazines advertisements

Qualitative research

Quantitative research

Both

A

Qualitative research

73
Q

Organising a small number of participants into a discussion group to study the experience of sexual discrimination in the workplace.

Qualitative research

Quantitative research

Both

A

Qualitative research

74
Q
  1. What are the major types of quantitative research designs?
A

Experimental: Experimental & Quasi-Experimental.

Non-experimental: Descriptive & Correlational

75
Q

What is evaluation?

A

systematic methods to address questions about a program to offer feedback to stakeholders.

76
Q

What skills would you need to be an evaluator?

A

good communication
non-biased
understand the research goals
rapport building skills

77
Q

What are the principles of evaluation?

A

A. Systematic Inquiry: Evaluators conduct systematic, data-based inquiries.
B. Competence: Evaluators provide competent performance to stakeholders.
C.Integrity/Honesty: Evaluators display honesty and integrity in their own behavior, and attempt to ensure the honesty and integrity of the entire evaluation process.
D. Respect for People: Evaluators respect the security, dignity and self-worth of respondents, program participants, clients, and other evaluation stakeholders.
E. Responsibilities for General and Public Welfare: Evaluators articulate and take into account the diversity of general and public interests and values that may be related to the evaluation.

78
Q

What are the 10 steps to Evaluation?

A
    • Understand the program
  2. Engage with stakeholders
  3. Assess resources
  4. Organise and select evaluation questions
  5. determine methods of measurements
  6. develop evaluation plan
  7. collect data
  8. analyse data
  9. interpret and disseminate
  10. Apply results of evaluation
79
Q

Which of the following is NOT a method of quantitative research?

A. Grounded Theory Research

B. Correlational Research

C. Quasi-Experimental Research

D. Experimental Research

A

A. Grounded Theory Research

80
Q

. The grounded theory approach was developed by

A. Heidegger

B. Glaser and Strauss

C. Husserl

D. Denzin

A

B. Glaser and Strauss

81
Q

Deductive Reasoning is applied in:

A. Qualitative research

B. Quantitative research

C. Action research

D. Applied research

A

B. Quantitative research

82
Q

Which of the following is a qualitative research design where lived experiences of individuals are examined in their “life-world”?

A. Ethnography

B. Ethology

C. Phenomenology

D. Grounded theory

A

C. Phenomenology

83
Q

Which of the following is a characteristic of qualitative research?

A. Deductive process

B. Control over the context

C. Fixed research design

D. Inductive process

A

D. Inductive process

84
Q
  1. Qualitative research design involves

A. Emergent design

B. Correlative design

C. Experimental design

D. Cohort design

A

A. Emergent design

85
Q

Phenomenological study involves all the following features, EXCEPT

A. Bracket out

B. Intuition

C. Analysis

D. Description

E. Manipulation

A

E. Manipulation

86
Q

Which of the following qualitative methods focuses on description and interpretation of cultural behavior?

A. Phenomenology

B. Grounded theory

C. Ethnography

D. Symbolic interactionism

A

C. Ethnography

87
Q

The area of inquiry in grounded theory approach is

A. Holistic view of culture

B. Lived experiences

C. Behaviour observed over time in natural context

D. Social structural processes with in social setting

A

D. Social structural processes with in social setting

88
Q

The research design in which the area inquiry is the manner by which people make sense of social interactions:

A. Grounded theory

B. Phenomenology

C. Symbolic interactionism

D. Ethnography

A

C. Symbolic interactionism

89
Q

The term triangulation was coined by:

A. Denzin (1989)

B. Leininger (1985)

C. Glaser and Strauss (1967)

D. Heidegger

A

A. Denzin (1989)

90
Q

In qualitative research, a guiding principle in deciding sample size is:

A. Effect size

B. Number of variables

C. Data saturation

D. Sub-group analysis

A

C. Data saturation

91
Q

The term refers to the use of multiple referents to draw conclusions about what constitutes the truth:

A. Item analysis

B. Factor analysis

C. Error measurement

D. Triangulation

A

D. Triangulation

92
Q

Characteristics of qualitative research design are

A. Flexible and elastic design

B. Use of mixed methodologies

C. Ongoing analysis to formulate subsequent strategies

D. Researcher becomes the instrument

E. All of the above

A

E. All of the above

93
Q

The tendency in qualitative research to derive a complex array of data from a variety of sources, using variety of methods is termed as:

A. Triangulation

B. Bricolage

C. Cross-tabulation

D. Confirmability

A

B. Bricolage

94
Q
  1. Random sampling or probability sampling includes all the following techniques, except:

A. Simple random sampling

B. Stratified random Sampling

C. Cluster sampling

D. Purposive Sampling

A

D. Purposive Sampling

95
Q
  1. Gender, age-class, religion, type of disease, and blood group are measured on:

A. Nominal scale of measurement

B. Ordinal scale of measurement

C. Interval scale of measurement

D. Ratio scale of measurement

A

A. Nominal scale of measurement

96
Q
  1. Which scale of measurement has an absolute zero?

A. Nominal

B. Ordinal

C. Interval

D. Ratio

A

D. Ratio

97
Q

The variable which is influenced by the intervention of the researcher is called:

A. Independent

B. Dependent

C. Discrete

D. Extraneous

A

B. Dependent

98
Q
  1. The statistical approach which helps the investigator to decide whether the outcome of the study is a result of factors planned within design of the study or determined by chance is called:

A. Descriptive statistics

B. Inferential statistics

C. Normal distribution

D. Standard deviation

A

B. Inferential statistics

99
Q
  1. Which of the following methods is a form of graphical presentation of data?

A. Line Diagram

B. Pie diagram

C. Bar diagram

D. Histogram

A

D. Histogram

100
Q
  1. All the following are measures of central tendency, except:

A. Mean

B. Median

C. Mode

D. Variance

A

D. Variance

101
Q
  1. Which measure of central tendency is Influenced by extreme scores and skewed distributions?

A. Mean

B. Median

C. Mode

D. Range

A

A. Mean

102
Q
  1. A measure of central tendency which is calculated by numbers arranging in numerical order is:

A. Standard deviation

B. Range

C. Median

D. Mode

A

C. Median

103
Q
  1. The proportion of observations fall above the median is:

A. 68%

B. 50%

C. 75%

D. 95%

A

B. 50%

104
Q
  1. The indices used to measure variation or dispersion among scores are all, except:

A. Range

B. Variance

C. Standard deviation

D. Mean

A

D. Mean

105
Q
  1. A measure of dispersion of a set of observations in which it is calculated by the difference between the highest and lowest values produced is called:

A. Standard deviation

B. Variance

C. Range

D. Mode

A

C. Range

106
Q
  1. A statistic which describes the interval of scores bounded by the 25th and 75th percentile ranks is:

A. Inter quartile range

B. Confidence Interval

C. Standard deviation

D. Variance

A

A. Inter quartile range

107
Q
  1. The Median value is the:

A. 25th percentile

B. 50th percentile

C. 75th percentile

D. 95th percentile

A

B. 50th percentile

108
Q
  1. Large standard deviations suggest that:

A. scores are probably widely scattered.

B. there is very little deference among scores.

C. mean, median and mode are the same

D. the scores not normally distributed.

A

A. scores are probably widely scattered.

109
Q
  1. A method of analyzing qualitative data that involves an interactive approach to testing research hypothesis:

A. Analytic induction

B. Axial coding

C. ‘Blind’ review

D. Inquiry audit

A

A. Analytic induction

110
Q

A design that unfolds in the course of a qualitative study as the researcher makes ongoing design:

A. Experimental design

B. Quasi-experimental design

C. Exploratory design

D. Emergent design

A

D. Emergent design

111
Q

‘Emic perspective’ refers to:

A. Outsider’s view

B. Insider’s view

C. Etic perspective

D. Holistic view

A

B. Insider’s view

112
Q
  1. A branch of qualitative research associated with the field of anthropology:

A. Ethnography

B. Anthropology

C. Etymology

D. Epistemology

A

B. Anthropology

113
Q
  1. Which of the following is NOT a qualitative method of research?
    A. Ethnography

B. Case Study

C. Survey/Sampling

D. Discourse/Text Analysis

E. Meta-Analysis

A

E. Meta-Analysis

114
Q
  1. Which is a characteristic of qualitative research methods?
    A. Naturalistic inquiry

B. Random sampling

C. Introduction of a treatment

D. Use of a control group

A

A. Naturalistic inquiry

115
Q
  1. A method of refining a hypothesis or theory in a qualitative study that involves the inclusion of cases that appear to deconfirm earlier hypotheses:

A. Negative case analysis

B. Open coding

C. Quasi-statistics

D. Theoretical sampling

A

A. Negative case analysis

116
Q
  1. Which of the following is NOT a characteristic feature of qualitative research?

A. Seek to explore phenomena

B. Emergent design

C. Positivist paradigm

D. Use semi-structured methods

A

C. Positivist paradigm

117
Q
  1. Which of the following classification of research designs is based on the dimension of control over independent variables?

A. Structured and flexible

B. Cross-sectional and longitudinal

C. Retrospective and prospective

D. Experimental/quasi experimental and non-experimental

A

D. Experimental/quasi experimental and non-experimental

118
Q
  1. A type of longitudinal study in which data are collected from the same people at two or more points in time:

A. Case control study

B. Panel study

C. Prospective study

D. Retrospective study

Answer Key

A

B. Panel study

119
Q
  1. The process in which each participant has an equal and known probability of being assigned to either the control or the experimental group is:

A. Randomization

B. Manipulation

C. Research control

A

A. Randomization

120
Q
  1. The the primary objective of experimental methodology is:

A. Ensure external validity

B. Improve internal validity

C. To eliminate type I error

D. To reduce ethical problems

A

B. Improve internal validity

121
Q
  1. A characteristic features of quasi-experimental design are all, EXCEPT:

A. Experimental and control groups may be nonequivalent

B. Less powerful than true-experimental design

C. Limited confidence in the internal validity of the study

D. Random assignment of units to comparison groups

A

D. Random assignment of units to comparison groups

122
Q
  1. Repeated-measures design is also known as:

A. Crossover design

B. Solomon four-group design

C. Time series design

D. With-in subjects design

A

A. Crossover design

123
Q
  1. The process of maneuvering the independent variable so that its effect on the dependent variable can be observed is:

A. Deductive Reasoning

B. Delimitation

C. Manipulation

D. Meta-analysis

A

C. Manipulation

124
Q
  1. “Cardiac patients who receive support from former patients have less anxiety and higher self-efficacy than other patients”. This statement is an example of:

A. Directional hypothesis

B. Non-directional hypothesis

C. Statistical hypothesis

D. Null hypothesis

A

A. Directional hypothesis=

125
Q
  1. What is TRUE about research hypothesis?

A. States there is no relationship between the variables.

B. Statement about the expected relationship of the variables.

C. States a negative relationship between the variables

D. Research hypothesis should always be directional.

A

B. Statement about the expected relationship of the variables.=

126
Q
  1. Hypothesis testing is sometimes called:

A. Exploratory data analysis

B. Power analysis

C. Deductive Reasoning

D. Confirmatory data analysis

A

D. Confirmatory data analysis

127
Q
  1. A sampling process where each element of the population that is sampled is subjected to an independent Bernoulli trial which determines whether the element becomes part of the sample during the drawing of a single sample:

A. Simple Random Sampling

B. Stratified Random Sampling

C. Poisson sampling

D. Multistage Sampling

A

C. Poisson sampling

128
Q
  1. Data collection about everyone or everything in group or population and has the advantage of accuracy and detail:

A. Census

B. Survey

C. Probability sampling

D. Cluster sampling

A

A. Census

129
Q
  1. The stages of sampling process comprises: (Multiple Response Question)

A. Defining the population

B. Specifying sampling frame

C. Specifying sampling method

D. Determining the sample size

E. Sampling and data collection

A

A, B, C, D, E

130
Q
  1. A sampling method which involves a random start and then proceeds with the selection of every kth element from then onwards (where k= population size/sample size):

A. Simple random sampling

B. Stratfied random sampling

C. Systematic sampling

D. Snowball sampling

A

C. Systematic sampling

131
Q
  1. Considerations for choosing sample size include:

A. The degree of precision required

B. Method of sampling

C. Way in which results will be analyzed

D. All of the above

A

D. All of the above

132
Q
  1. The standard deviation of a sampling distribution is referred to as the:

A. Test statistic

B. Standard error

C. Confidence interval

D. Test of signaifiance

A

B. Standard error

133
Q
  1. Sampling bias or the error resulting from taking a non-random sample of a population include:

A. Pre-screening

B. Self-Selection Bias

C. Selection from a Specific Area

D. Exclusion bias

E. All of the above

A

E. All of the above

NUR363 (11 decks)

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