Medicine Flashcards
What was used to treat pain in the mid 19th Century?
Opium, alcohol and knocking someone out
What type of surgeon was best in the mid-19th Century?
A quick one
In the mid-19th Century, medicine was still based on the findings of which Greek and Roman doctors?
Hippocrates and Galen
What was the miasma theory?
Germs were caused by poisonous vapours (bad air)
Who discovered that a small dose of cowpox protected you from smallpox?
Edward Jenner
Who is the father of microbiology?
Pasteur
Which animal did Pasteur first experiment on?
Silkworms
Pasteur and Koch were spurred by the competition of which war?
Franco-Prussian war
Koch was the first to use which technique?
Stain and grow bacteria in a petri dish
In 1881, Pasteur claimed he had a vaccination for which disease?
Anthrax
Ehrlich worked for who?
Koch
Ehrlich and Behring found chemical vaccines for what?
Syphilis - Salvarson 606
What did Domagk discover?
The 2nd magic bullet - Prontosil
What type of drug is penicillin?
Antibiotic
Who discovered penicillin?
Fleming - although Sanderson and Lister had noted it beforehand
Who developed penicillin?
Florey and Chain
How much did the US government give to drug companies in WWII to mass produce penicillin?
$80 million
Who amputated 200 limbs in 24 hours?
Napoleon’s surgeon Dubois at the Battle of Borodino
Name an operation that could be carried out in 1880?
Amputation, trephining, removal of superficial tumours
What did Sir Humphry Davy discover in 1799?
Laughing Gas
Who used ether as an anaesthetic in 1847?
Lister
Who used chloroform as an anaesthetic in 1847?
Simpson
Who died in 1848 after being given chloroform to remove her toenail?
Hannah Greener
Chloroform was accepted after who used it?
Queen Victoria after the birth of her 8th child
Who launched a hand washing crusade?
Semmelweiss
Which antiseptic did Lister first use?
Carbolic acid
Between 1864 and 1870 what did the death rate of Lister’s patients fall to?
From 45.7% to 15%
What are the limitations of carbolic acid?
Causes cracked skin, it smells, it’s extra work for surgeons and it was an added expense
By the 1890s Lister’s antiseptic methods had led to what type of surgery
Aseptic
What was used in 1894 for the first time?
Sterilised rubber gloves
Who discovered x-rays?
Wilhelm Rontgen in 1895
When was it discovered that there were different blood types?
1901
What were three main improvements to surgery during WWI
X-rays, blood transfusions, fighting infection
Who made advances in burns patients during WWII?
Archibald McIndoe
Which Russian pioneered work on skin grafts during WWII?
Filatov
When was the Medical Registration Act passed which prevented women becoming doctors?
1852
Which American doctor was Elizabeth Garrett inspired by?
Elizabeth Blackwell
Which hospital did Garrett start attending lectures for doctors?
Middlesex Hospital
Which Society did Garrett pass the exams for in 1865?
Society of Apothecaries
Where did Garrett get her medical degree from?
University of Paris
Which hospital did Garrett found in 1872?
New Hospital for Women in London
Which Turkish hospital did Nightingale work in?
Scutari
In Scutari hospital what did the mortality rate fall to?
From 60% to 2.2%
What was the name of the nursing school Nightingale set up in England?
Nightingale Training School and Home for Nurses
What was the name of the military nursing unit in WWI and WWII?
Queen Alexandra Imperial Military Training Services or QAIMNS
What was the name of the Glasgow doctor who became a medical officer?
Dr Constance Ross
What is the term for governments not interfering?
Laissez-Faire
Cholera hit which town in 1831?
Sunderland
In 1854, who proved that there was a link between cholera and the water supply?
John Snow
Did Snow come before or after Pasteur?
Before - he died 3 years before Germ Theory
What was Chadwick’s 1842 report called?
The Sanitary Conditions of the Labouring Population
What were the main findings of Chadwick’s 1842 report?
The working classes could not work hard because of poverty and poor public health
What did the 1848 Public Health Act do?
Permissive, encouraged local authorities to make improvements, provide a medical officer, allowed them to borrow money
What were the limitation of the 1848 Public Health Act?
Permissive, costs too high, only a few local authorities took measures
When was the Great Stink?
1858
Which northern town led the way in terms of public health?
Leeds
Who was the mayor of Birmingham in the 1870s?
Joseph Chamberlain
When did some working class men living in towns get the vote?
1867
What did the 1875 Public Health Act do?
Local councils responsible for clean water, public toilets, rubbish removal, sewers and drains
Who built Bourneville model city in Birmingham?
Cadbury family
Name a social reformer of the 19th Century/early 20th Century
Rowntree, Booth, Galt
What percentage of volunteers for the Boer War were unfit?
50%
Which countries had overtaken Britain in the Industrial Revolution?
Germany and USA
When did Liberals introduce free school medical inspections?
1907
What was a limitation of the medical inspections?
Parents still had to pay for medicine
When was the Old Age Pensions Act?
1908
How did Lloyd George fund Old Age Pensions?
The People’s Budget
Which National Insurance Act covered sickness?
1911 Part II
What did the death rate for broken thighs go down by due to splints?
80% in 1914 to 20% in 1918
Who developed mobile x-ray machines?
Marie Curie
Who added sodium citrate to blood to stop it clotting?
Agote and Hustin
When did the British set up blood banks for type O blood?
1917
Who set up a British army plastic surgery unit?
Harold Gillies
Who led the Blood for Britain campaign in WWII?
Dr Charles Drew
How many of the 17,000 injured troops at Dunkirk developed tetanus?
None
Who developed better plastic surgery techniques during WWII?
Archibald McIndoe
When was the NHS set up?
1948
What were the ideas of Hippocrates and Galen?
Hippocrates had practiced medicine in Greece and it is through him that we have the Hippocratic Oath. He pushed the idea of monitoring patients and writing down their symptoms. He developed the idea of the Four Humours Galen had practiced medicine in Rome and contributed a lot to the understanding of anatomy and believed in the Four Humours and the idea that if they were unbalanced that was why you were ill.
What advancements had been made by the 17th and 18th Centuries?
During the scientific revolution of the 18th century new advances in anatomy and science had been made and the ideas of Galen were questioned.In the 16th century Vesalius had encouraged doctors to do their own dissectionsIn the 17th century doctors increasingly used microscopesScientists began to question the idea of the Four Humours on discovering that air itself is made up of different gasses.
What is miasma theory?
There had always been a connection between dirt and disease.The idea was that a poisonous vapour which consisted of particles of decaying matter created a foul smell.
Why did the miasma theory make sense in the 19th Century?
The theory of miasma made sense because rapid urbanisation and industrialisation created poor and foul-smelling areas that tended to have epidemics.If these were improved there was an improvement in disease ratesFlorence Nightingale believed this theory and this is why she wanted hospitals to be well-ventilated, clean and airy.
What is Spontaneous Generation?
People did not understand the link between microorganisms and disease. The theory of Spontaneous Generation claimed that rotting material created maggots, fleas and disease
List some of the positive developments made before 1850 to help improve knowledge and understanding of illness
Late 17th century – Microscopes developed by a Dutch clockmaker called Anthony van Leeuwenhoek. He discovered that everything he looked at contained tiny organisms which he called animalcules – water, faeces, animal intestines, even the scrapings from his teeth. He wrote 200 papers for the Royal Society in London1796 – Edward Jenner discovered that a small dose of cowpox protects humans from smallpox and called the technique vaccination. In 1805 Napoleon had all of his soldiers vaccinated. In 1852 the British government made vaccination compulsory.1830 – A British Scientist, developed a microscope that magnified 1000x without distortion. With these improved microscopes scientists could observe in detail the behaviour of microorganisms.
Who was Louis Pasteur?
A French chemist in the late 1850s
How did Pasteur prove that bacteria was spreading disease?
- He was asked by a brewery company to investigate the sour beer.- He took two flasks, heated a liquid in one to make it sterile and drove the air out of it. Ge sealed the flasks. Approx 10 years later, the cleaned flask was sterile and the other was full of bacteria.
In 1860 what challenge did the French Academy put forward?
Prove or disprove spontaneous generation
What was the theory developed by Pocuhet?
Scientists thought the germs were spontaneously generated by the decay and then spread the disease further
What was Pasteur’s Germ Theory?
He showed food went off because of contamination through the air. That germs were spread through the air and not spontaneously created
Why was Germ Theory controversial?
Pasteur was a chemist not a doctor
What was the impact of Pasteurisation?
- This was the start of the method of heating and sterilising liquids- We still use it today! For example, milk. It also paved the way for air-tight food storage such as tins and cans.
What was Pasteur’s investigation into silkworms?
In 1865 he was asked to save the silk industry! He proved that bacteria was spreading the disease and by isolating diseased silkworms you could save the rest.
What was the impact of Pasteur in surgery?
It led to an understanding of why infection often developed after an operation and to Joseph Lister’s antiseptic techniques
What was the impact of Pasteur on public health?
It helped explain the link between hygiene and health.His ideas led to the identification of various microorganisms causing disease which meant vaccines could be produced.
What were the limitations to Pasteur’s work?
It wasn’t until 1878 that he published Germ Theory and its Application to Medicine and even then, many scientists didn’t accept his ideas.Scientists did not understand how blood had hundreds of microorganisms but only some caused disease.It was not clear how germ theory could CURE disease. It could only identify its spread.
Who was Koch?
A German doctor. Especially good at lab work. He stained microbes in order to identify different diseases.
Why was there a rivalry between Koch and Pasteur?
The Franco-Prussian war of 1870-71
How did Koch discover anthrax in animals?
Koch wanted to further Pasteur’s ideas and identify specific microbes.In 1868, a French scientist called Davaine had proved that a healthy animal could get anthrax if injected with the blood of an infected animalFound that anthrax produced spores that lived for a long time after an animal had died. Proved that these spores could develop into the anthrax germ that could infect other animals
Why was Koch important?
He did not focus on symptoms of a disease but, instead, investigated the microorganisms and showed that new techniques could be used to investigate a number of diseases.
How did Pasteur solve the problem of chicken cholera?
By the 1870s, Pasteur was worried that Koch was getting ahead of him so he tried to find a cure for disease.In 1879, he extracted the germ which causes the disease to make a weak form to inject chickens withOne of his team injected an old sample - the chicken did not die. He then infected it with fresh cholera germs and the chicken still didn’t die.They realised that a weakened form of the disease would stimulate the chicken’s natural defences to find a solution so would fight against further infection.He had proved Jenner’s vaccinations worked.
How does Pasteur solve anthrax in animals?
Anthrax killed 9% of sheep and 7% of cows every year.In 1881 he publicly displayed his findings for the Agricultural Society of Melun in which he demonstrated a vaccine for anthrax.He was criticised by Koch for not accurately measuring his findings but Pasteur became famous.
How does Pasteur solve rabies?
In 1882 he looked into rabies.The disease was passed on by dieased dogs biting humans.He created a vaccine but did not test it on humans until a 9 year old boy came to him with rabies. Pasteur used the vaccine and saved the boys life.People flocked from all over Europe to see him.
How did Koch use bacteriology?
He experimented with industrial chemical dyes to stain microorganisms a different colour and make them easier to study under a microscope
How does Koch identify septicaemia?
He discovered that methyl violet dye showed up the septicaemia germ under a microscope by staining it.He also took photographs so people outside of the lab could see it.
How did Koch grow perfect cultures?
He perfected the technique using a mix of potatoes and gelatine
How does Koch identify tuberculosis?
In 1881 he turned his attention to TB.It was much smaller than anthrax so research was difficultHe used a more specialised version of his dye techniqueIn 1882 they had found the germ.
Who were microbe hunters?
A new generation of young scientists who were inspired by Koch and Pasteur. An example is Ehrlich.
Why was Koch important?
He finally laid to rest the idea of bad air causing disease.Had inspired many young researchers to carry on his workHis work could be developed to create vaccinesBy 1900. 21 germs had been identified in just 21 years.
What other diseases were found?
1882 - Typhoid1886 - Pneumonia1887 - Meningitis1894 - Plague
What arguments are there for Pasteur being more important than Koch?
- Disproved Spontaneous Generation- Proved that germs cause decay and not the other way around- Koch wouldn’t have started his work- Invented Pasteurisation- Paved the way for future safe food storage- Found the vaccination for anthrax- Germ Theory
What arguments are there for Koch being more important than Pasteur?
- Koch paved the way for other scientists to develop his ideas- Discovered germs for specific disease e.g. TB and anthrax- Started to stain bacteria to identify them - new technique- Worked with a team meaning lots of new ideas
What limitations were there to Koch?
It was a while before these ideas were accepted into medicine and a long time before prevention and treatmentScientists and doctors were doubtful meaning the public knew nearly nothing about itVaccines could not prevent anything if the disease was already in the body.
Who was Paul Erhlich?
He was a physician that had worked in Koch’s bacteriology lab. He reasoned that he could not only stain but attack harmful microbes if he could find a chemical to attach and kill the germ.He called these chemicals magic bullets
Who was Emil Behring?
He was a pioneer in the field of immunology.In 1889 he discovered that it was possible to neutralise bacterial toxins using antitoxinsHis work resulted in the development of blood serums against diphtheria and tetanus and modern methods of immunisation have eradicated diphtheria almost worldwide.
What did the first Magic Bullet cure?
Syphilis
Explain the discovery of Salvarson 606 (the First Magic Bullet)
Ehrlich opened a research institute to find the Magic BulletHe wanted to kill specific germs but not harm anything else in the body.In 1905 - they tested over 600 chemical compounds In 1909 - Hata joined the team. Retested discarded chemicals and found the 606th worked. In 1911 - First tested on humansEhrlich and other scientists proposed that researchers should develop specific drugs to target specific germs killing the cause of the disease rather than the symptoms
Who was Marie Curie?
- Born in Warsaw, Poland- Went to Sorbonne University in Paris- Worked on radiation and discovered radium and polonium