Media Representation and Identity Flashcards
9/11 Effects
Gilroy argues that 911 manufactured a simplistic ‘West versus extremist Muslim’ racial binary. Afterwards, the media routinely represented Middle Eastern groups as terrorist ‘others’
Abjection
a repulsive or highly negative media representation. Butler suggests for example that gay identities are often vilified by the media
Abject Representations
where white male cishet being the norm is reinforced through the suggestion that alternatives to those identities are disturbing, repellent or unnatural
Absent Representations
where the sheer lack of alternative representation reinforces white male cishet power as the norm
Active Audience Engagement
active audiences are in control of the way they watch or interact with media, so Gauntlett would argue that audiences use or make media products to craft their own identities
Active Masculinity
van Zoonen suggests that media representations of men typically frame males as more active than those used to depict women. Masculine framing might emphasise movement, skill or action
Albionic Nostalgia
a representation of Englishness that is marked by historical sentimentality and that constructs an idealised depiction of the UK as a rural country with a predominantly white population
Alvarado’s Theory
theories related to ethnicity and are based on the idea that people from different cultures tend to be defined by their ‘otherness’. Representation focuses on racial characteristics and preconceived audience perceptions drawn from other media texts rather than reality. Alvarado believed that the representation of ethnic groups can be divided into four categories
The Dangerous
some texts represent ethnic minorities as a threat to society are often blamed for social problems. The ghettoization of some social groups reinforces the idea of difference as they become marooned communities who are seen as apart from the norm. This lack of personalisation makes it easier to blame them for a range of social problems
The Exotic
this presents the individual in terms of how different they are from us, linked to what Stuart Hall called ‘the secret fascination of otherness’
The Humourous
this occurs when the audience is encouraged to laugh at ethnic stereotypes within the text. These stereotypes have been built up over time and, as with all stereotypes, they exaggerate recognisable features and attributes. In the early days of sitcom, racist humour was seen as an acceptable way of making people laugh
The Pitied
this stereotypes ethnic minorities as victims, occurs when certain countries only appear in the news when linked to disasters such as famine and earthquakes
Aspirational Narrative
media product that offers audiences self-improvement advice or that provides readers with lifestyle ideals that they might want to copy. These stories provide identity change tips
Audience Needs
audiences gain enjoyment from recognising the use of genre-driven tropes, but they also gain pleasure in identifying moments that depart from those expectations, providing moments of audience pleasure or delivering products with unique selling points
Audience Targetting
Neale highlights the way that genres are crafted to create appeal for specific audience segments
Aunt Jemima
overweight asexual representations of black femininity, often depicted as maids or servants who serve their white employers without complaint, a spin-off of the mammy stereotype
Auteur Effects
argues that genre subversion is often caused by the effects that key contributors have in production (directors, actors and so on). Auteurs style genre driven content using individual hallmarks
Baroque Era
the era from 1600 to 1750, recognised by its use of repetition, scale sand sequences
Baudrillard’s Theory
states that prior to the dissolution of the metanarrative, media was real, but media has now moved away from reality and now shows a representation of reality which may be entirely artificial, causing a loss of reality, and that audiences are able to tell the difference between reality and the edited version but no longer care about the difference
Faithful
where images reflect profound reality by creating an obvious replacement of the real thing, eg photo
Perversion
where images mask and denature a profound reality. A side effect of the industrial revolution, when the difference between the original and the copy became impossible to tell apart, so the copy questions the authority of the original and if no difference can be found, both are deemed to be of equal value, eg orange juice
Pretence
where images mask an absence of profound reality. Whilst pretences claim to be faithful representations of reality, Baudrillard states there was never a reality being copied and the copy proves that humans have a need to mask the absence of reality, so create a sense of stable reality by selling copies as real, eg Fanta, Disneyland
Pure
image now has no relation to reality whatsoever, creating its own pure simulacrum. Baudrillard believed this was a side effect of capitalism, causing originality to lose all meaning and the unreal to replace real so efficiently that the replacement no longer matters
Beauty Ideals
a socially constructed definition of what physical beauty ought to be, often resulting in audiences feeling a pressure to conform to the narrow ideals suggested
Bechdale Test
a measure of female representation in the media, asking if there is a scene in which two women discuss something other than a man
bell hooks
agrees with Butler and Van Zoonen but focuses on intersectionality stating that black women are the lowest status in media representations so they are not only not represented but are also not allowed to look, or if they do, must adopt an oppositional view as looking implores a sense of power that is removed in order to play the role of object in direct relation to white female existence
Black Atlantic Culture
identified by Paul Gilroy, who argued that the themes and techniques used in black Atlantic culture go beyond ethnicity and nationality, producing something new, and that Black Atlantic Culture is not specifically any culture, but every culture all at once
Butler’s Theory
Judith Butler compared gender to a social drama, suggesting that men and women are the protagonists in the narrative and are expected to play social roles, concluding that gender is not a stable signifier but a social construct and performance, and therefore cannot be internalised
Character-Driven Motifs
where characters define genre by having certain attributes or follow genre-driven narratives; for example, crime dramas use anti-heroes as leads
Civilisationism
a stark representation of the world in which Western democracy is pitted against extremist others
Classical Era
the era from 1750 to 1820, characterised by improvisation and minimalist ideas
Closure and Exposure
media products help to exclude groups from positions of social power as a result of negative representations, often positioning marginalised groups as unworthy of social inclusion
Commodities
something which makes money
Communism
the idea that nobody should have power over anybody else
Compulsory Heterosexuality
a phrase used by Butler to describe the expectation that we assume a traditional heterosexual male or female identity
Contextual Influences
media makers adapt genre-driven content as a result of historical, political or social contexts
Cosmopolitan Conviviality
a term used to describes the high levels of racial harmony that mark most people’s day-to-day lives, a direct contrast to the media’s routine use of racial disharmony as a narrative trope
Countertype
a positive representation of a social group, usually created by reversing the negative traits or behaviours usually associated with a media stereotype
Deconstructed Stereotype
deconstructed stereotypes occur when texts explain the affects of stereotyping. They might outline ‘why’ a character behaves negatively, thus producing audience empathy
Discourse
communication from the media
Drag Queens
Butler tells us that drag queens are subtly subversive in that they draw attention to the idea that our gender-based identities can be altered or performed
Duplication Effects
in postmodern media, commercially successful products are repurposed, remade, serialised or copied to attract and maintain audiences
Early Modernity
covers the period from the Renaissance to the Industrial Revolution. In this stage, cultural products such as literature, music and art map closely to what Baudrillard calls a profound reality. Culture creates an authentic experience when consumed and mass culture is dominated by the lone voice of religion which connects the masses to a singular ideology
Economic Influences
falling sales or poor audience engagement creates commercial imperatives to adapt genre-driven content
Female Gaze
this concept arguable cannot exist due to the matriarchal power imbalance; the male gaze supports the patriarchal status quo, perpetuating women’s real life sexual objectification. Alternatively, it can be argued that the female gaze does exist, and shows more emotions, tenderness and sensualness
Female Genres
genres like soap operas that provoke alternative readership patterns that challenge the patriarchy
Female Identification
van Zoonen suggests that female spectators internalise traditional gender stereotypes that are acted out on screen and so come to regard media beauty myths as something to aspire to
Feminising Rituals
Butler suggests that female identity is constructed through ritualised behaviours, such as by the daily application of makeup or the styling of hair in a way that signals a female identity
Feminism
hooks claimed you could only describe yourself as a feminist if you actively opposed the opposition of females
Feminism Theory
the theory that all conflict and depiction of conflict is because men are in charge and dominate over other women
Feminist Backlash
a media backlash against 1960s feminism that attempted to reinstate traditional femininity as a social ideal. This form of media produced highly objectified representations of women
First Wave Feminism
the period of feminist activity from the 19th century to the early 20th century, including the Suffragettes
Fixed Identity
suggest that audiences don’t have a great deal of choice about who they can be, instead identities are fixed by religious beliefs or traditional gender norms
Fluid Identity
suggest that audiences don’t have a great deal of choice about who they can be, instead identities are fixed by religious beliefs or traditional gender norms
Fourth Wave Feminism
the current period of feminist activity, ushered in by the dawn of the internet
Gender Performance
gender is reinforced via the performance of everyday rituals. Wearing gendered clothing, for example, or styling our hair in socially acceptable ways nurtures a male or female identity
Gender Subversion
a media representation that challenges heteronormativity or traditional male/female gender roles
Gender Trouble
where people act outside of traditional strict gender roles
Genre Piggybacking
products can cash in on relative popularity of genre-driven products by including elements of motifs of the genre
Globalisation
allows individuals to transcend the rigid expectations of their immediate communities
Hypermasculinity
a psychological term for the exaggeration of the male stereotypical behaviour such as an emphasis on physical strength, aggression or sexuality, became prominent in the 1950s-1980s
Hyperreality
where audiences can no longer tell the difference between reality and simulacra or prefer the simulacra. Simulacra try to make out that they are real but have nothing to do with reality
