Meaning and the Word Flashcards
Difference between lecture 1 and 2 is the difference between Reference and Sense
What does this mean?
Reference = considers the relationship between WORDS and THE WORLD
Sense = considers the relationship between WORDS and OTHER WORDS. (lexical semantics)
Synonymy
Synonymy = a word which has TWO or more FORMS with SIMILAR MEANINGS .
eg. cup and glass
Homonymy
Homonymy = ONE FORM and SOUND with two or more DIFFERENT MEANINGS
eg. bat (nocturnal, flying animal) bat (used in sport to hit a ball) -> specifically this is a homograph
Types of homonym
Homophones SOUND the SAME but LOOK DIFFERENT
eg. mat vs matte (of a surface or colour) dull and flat; without a shine
Homographs SOUND DIFFERENT but LOOK the SAME
eg. bow (verb: to bend at the waist) vs bow (noun: string/ribbon/shoe laces tied together with two loops)
What do sense relations DO?
They give us insight into how meaning is constructed in language.
Does true synonymy/true synonyms exist? Steven Ullman AGAINST
Steven Ullman argues that no two words are completely interchangeable and have the same meaning due to differences in:
- dialect
- distributing of use
- register
Does true synonymy/true synonyms exist? John Lyons FOR IN CERTAIN CASES
John Lyons argues that strict synonymy IS POSSIBLE if you narrow your focus and agree that while no two words may have exactly the same meaning/be strict synonyms in every context, they may be strictly synonymous in specific contexts.
Formula for strict synonymy
- Take two sentences (S1 ans S2) in which only one word DIFFERS
- x is substituted by y
- If S1 and S2 are identical in meaning then x and y are STRICT SYNONYMS in that context.
eg. Could you get me some water please?
S1 = Yes, give me your cup.
S2 = Yes, give me your glass.
Synonymy and Hyponymy =
Synonymy can be considered a special case Hyponymy
Hyponymy Definition ?????
Words in the same category
Hyponymy refers to sense relations that hold between classes and their members.
Possible Formula for Hyponymy
- Take two sentences (S1 and S2) which DIFFER only in ONE word (x and y)
- x is substituted by y
- If S1 implies S2 but S2 doesn’t imply S1
THEN y is a hyponym of x in that question
eg. S1: The rose is so pretty.
S2: The flower is so pretty.
Rose implies flower (S1 -> S2) but flower does not imply rose in this case.
Formula for Synonym as a special case of Hyponymy
- Take two sentences S1 and S 2
- They differ only in one word, x and y
- If S1 implies S2 and S2 ALSO implies S1
THEN x and y are synonyms in this case.
Mutual implication
Antonymy Definition
Opposite meaning
HOWEVER not all words have a direct opposite, or opposites in the same way
Different ways word meanings can be incompatible/opposite
- ‘True’ Antonymy
- Complementarity
- Converseness
- Incompatibility
‘True’ Antonymy Definition and Examples
Cases of ‘true’ antonymy are often gradable adjectives eg. big/small
blunt/sharp
tall/short
One test for this category is whether intermediate stages are possibly eg. very tall
Complementarity Definition and Examples
Complementarity = two-term sets of words is which one EXCLUDES the other
eg. poor/rich
married/single
Converseness Definition and Examples
Converseness = two-term sets of words, one implies the other
eg. give -> receive
Incompatibility Definition and Examples
Incompatibility = sets of words greater than two in which if something is one thing it can’t be one of the others.
eg. red/green/blue/yellow
summer/autumn/winter
Semantic fields and Lexical sets Definitions
Semantic fields = concepts
Lexical sets = the words available in a language to express concepts -> those are then the words that make up a semantic field
Lexical Sets: grouping/sharing
Lexical sets share aspects of their meaning eg. smell/taste/hear/see
But there are often alternative groupings. eg. smell -> inhale/sniff/breathe in
Grouping members of a lexical set together can shed light on how they occupy space in the semantic field.
Lexical sets: gaps
There are gaps in lexical sets because words do not reflect every possible concept there could be.
This means certain experiences can go unobserved, or at least unarticulated, at least until someone coins an accepted expression.
Structure of Lexical Sets ?????
Lexical sets are grouped in relation to other words with related meanings. One part of a lexical set may be part of another lexical set at the same time.
Semantic Field structure ???
Semantic fields can be though of in terms of superordinate categories with co-hyponyms leading out from each word.
