Meaning and the Word

Question 1

Difference between lecture 1 and 2 is the difference between Reference and Sense
What does this mean?

Answer 1

Reference = considers the relationship between WORDS and THE WORLD

Sense = considers the relationship between WORDS and OTHER WORDS. (lexical semantics)

Question 2

Synonymy

Answer 2

Synonymy = a word which has TWO or more FORMS with SIMILAR MEANINGS .
eg. cup and glass

Question 3

Homonymy

Answer 3

Homonymy = ONE FORM and SOUND with two or more DIFFERENT MEANINGS
eg. bat (nocturnal, flying animal) bat (used in sport to hit a ball) -> specifically this is a homograph

Question 4

Types of homonym

Answer 4

Homophones SOUND the SAME but LOOK DIFFERENT
eg. mat vs matte (of a surface or colour) dull and flat; without a shine

Homographs SOUND DIFFERENT but LOOK the SAME
eg. bow (verb: to bend at the waist) vs bow (noun: string/ribbon/shoe laces tied together with two loops)

Question 5

What do sense relations DO?

Answer 5

They give us insight into how meaning is constructed in language.

Question 6

Does true synonymy/true synonyms exist? Steven Ullman AGAINST

Answer 6

Steven Ullman argues that no two words are completely interchangeable and have the same meaning due to differences in:

• dialect
• distributing of use
• register

Question 7

Does true synonymy/true synonyms exist? John Lyons FOR IN CERTAIN CASES

Answer 7

John Lyons argues that strict synonymy IS POSSIBLE if you narrow your focus and agree that while no two words may have exactly the same meaning/be strict synonyms in every context, they may be strictly synonymous in specific contexts.

Question 8

Formula for strict synonymy

Answer 8

1. Take two sentences (S1 ans S2) in which only one word DIFFERS
2. x is substituted by y
3. If S1 and S2 are identical in meaning then x and y are STRICT SYNONYMS in that context.

eg. Could you get me some water please?
S1 = Yes, give me your cup.
S2 = Yes, give me your glass.

Question 9

Synonymy and Hyponymy =

Answer 9

Synonymy can be considered a special case Hyponymy

Question 10

Hyponymy Definition ?????

Answer 10

Words in the same category

Hyponymy refers to sense relations that hold between classes and their members.

Question 11

Possible Formula for Hyponymy

Answer 11

1. Take two sentences (S1 and S2) which DIFFER only in ONE word (x and y)
2. x is substituted by y
3. If S1 implies S2 but S2 doesn’t imply S1
   THEN y is a hyponym of x in that question

eg. S1: The rose is so pretty.
S2: The flower is so pretty.

Rose implies flower (S1 -> S2) but flower does not imply rose in this case.

Question 12

Formula for Synonym as a special case of Hyponymy

Answer 12

1. Take two sentences S1 and S 2
2. They differ only in one word, x and y
3. If S1 implies S2 and S2 ALSO implies S1
   THEN x and y are synonyms in this case.

Mutual implication

Question 13

Antonymy Definition

Answer 13

Opposite meaning

HOWEVER not all words have a direct opposite, or opposites in the same way

Question 14

Different ways word meanings can be incompatible/opposite

Answer 14

1. ‘True’ Antonymy
2. Complementarity
3. Converseness
4. Incompatibility

Question 15

‘True’ Antonymy Definition and Examples

Answer 15

Cases of ‘true’ antonymy are often gradable adjectives eg. big/small
blunt/sharp
tall/short

One test for this category is whether intermediate stages are possibly eg. very tall

Question 16

Complementarity Definition and Examples

Answer 16

Complementarity = two-term sets of words is which one EXCLUDES the other
eg. poor/rich
married/single

Question 17

Converseness Definition and Examples

Answer 17

Converseness = two-term sets of words, one implies the other
eg. give -> receive

Question 18

Incompatibility Definition and Examples

Answer 18

Incompatibility = sets of words greater than two in which if something is one thing it can’t be one of the others.
eg. red/green/blue/yellow
summer/autumn/winter

Question 19

Semantic fields and Lexical sets Definitions

Answer 19

Semantic fields = concepts
Lexical sets = the words available in a language to express concepts -> those are then the words that make up a semantic field

Question 20

Lexical Sets: grouping/sharing

Answer 20

Lexical sets share aspects of their meaning eg. smell/taste/hear/see
But there are often alternative groupings. eg. smell -> inhale/sniff/breathe in

Grouping members of a lexical set together can shed light on how they occupy space in the semantic field.

Question 21

Lexical sets: gaps

Answer 21

There are gaps in lexical sets because words do not reflect every possible concept there could be.

This means certain experiences can go unobserved, or at least unarticulated, at least until someone coins an accepted expression.

Question 22

Structure of Lexical Sets ?????

Answer 22

Lexical sets are grouped in relation to other words with related meanings. One part of a lexical set may be part of another lexical set at the same time.

Question 23

Semantic Field structure ???

Answer 23

Semantic fields can be though of in terms of superordinate categories with co-hyponyms leading out from each word.