Meaning across Time

Question 1

Synchronic definition

Answer 1

Synchronic = meanings of words at a particular time (usually the present)
Syn -> single time

Question 2

Diachronic Definition

Answer 2

Diachronic = meanings of words considered over time (semantic change)

Question 3

Two types of word meaning ->

Answer 3

Denotation
Connotation

Boundaries between denotation and connotation can blur or replace one another

Question 4

Denotation Definition

Answer 4

= the ‘core’ or ‘dictionary’ meaning of a word

Question 5

Connotation Definition

Answer 5

= the additional associations a word acquires

Connotations can be idiosyncratic, change over time, fall out of use

Question 6

Example of a word who’s meaning changes drastically over time: NICE

Answer 6

nescius - Latin (adj) meaning ignorant and several other words from romance languages French/Italian/Spanish all with the same original meaning according to the Oxford English Dictionary

According to the Historical Thesaurus of English from the 13th o the 15th century the definition of ‘nice’ included foolish and lacking understanding.
Nice underwent many changes in meaning, such as ‘slothful’ and ‘lazy’ in the 15th to 17th century as well as ‘shy’ or ‘bashful’ in the 16th and 17th century. However, it gradually began to hold positive associations towards the 17th century and from then on, due to increasing value for the idea of shyness and quiet respectability. It then slowly the meaning of ‘pleasant’ according to the Oxford English Dictionary after meaning ‘careful’

http: //www.oed.com.ezproxy.lib.gla.ac.uk/view/Entry/126732?rskey=M0h5LL&result=6&isAdvanced=true#firstMatch
http: //historicalthesaurus.arts.gla.ac.uk/category-selection/?word=nice&label=&category=&year=&oef=Y&startf=&currentf=Y&endf=&startl=&endl=

Question 7

Reasons for Semantic Change (SIX reasons)

Answer 7

1. Systemic Regulation
2. Homonymic Clash
3. Similarity of Form
4. Cultural Change
5. Cultural affiliation
6. Euphemism

Question 8

Systemic Regulation (semantic change)

Answer 8

Systemic regulation brings about semantic change when more than one word refers to the same concept.
When this happens the vocabulary system will modify itself in some way (which causes knock on effects in other vocab)
eg. arrival of skirt and subsequent changes to meaning of shirt/skirt

Question 9

Homonymic Clash (semantic change)

Answer 9

Homonymic clash causes semantic change because vocabulary does not easily tolerate words that sound similar or identical. ESPECIALLY when they refer to semantically similar concepts/when they have similar meanings.
NEVERTHELESS we can can keep words that sound similar when there’s little chance of confusion between their meanings eg. reign/rain/rein

ear/neer (kidney)
an ear infection -> a neer infection = confusion, so neer dropped out of usage in standard English

Question 10

Similarity of Form (semantic change)

Answer 10

When words appear similar in form but hold different meanings. eg.

Question 11

Cultural Change (semantic change)

Answer 11

Cultural change causes semantic change because semantic change is often tied to cultural changes as some words are tied to area of experience which for one reason or another become less fashionable/acceptable or go out of date.
eg ‘branks’ or a scold’s bridle -> as practise and attitude that allowed this to happen goes out of date the word fades from memory.

As culture changes the experiences we share change too and so meanings we need ti express also change according to those experiences.

Question 12

Cultural Affiliation (semantic change)

Answer 12

Cultural affiliation can lead to semantic change because as people use words to show their membership of certain social/subcultural groups (consciously or unconsciously) through inventing or using words in new ways, these then take on new meanings. They do this because it functions as a kind of bonding device/increasing solidarity.
This may be seen in the reclaiming of slurs in oppressed groups. eg. queer in the lgbt+ community, once held extreme negative connotations but is being reclaimed to refer to any person who falls under the lgbt+ spectrum.

Spiffing/chap signal that someone belongs to a certain, older/more old fashioned age group.

Question 13

Euphemism (semantic change)

Answer 13

Euphemism leads to semantic change because there are certain linguistic hotspots in which new words are used to make sensitive subjects more acceptable/less unpleasant.
This often includes staring to use Latin derivatives as they my sound more learned/neutral/tactful/ACCEPTABLE

eg. pacification -> war
eg. ministry of war -> ministry of defence
dead -> passed on

Question 14

MECHANISMS of SEMANTIC CHANGE (5 main ones)

Answer 14

1. Narrowing (specialisation)
2. Widening (generalisation)
3. Polysemy (radiation)
4. Pejoration (deterioration/degeneration)
5. Amelioration (elevation)

Question 15

Narrowing, specialisation (mechanism)

Answer 15

The meaning of a word becomes MORE SPECIFIC.

Often from a word with a more general meaning to meaning something more specific.

Question 16

Widening, generalisation (mechanism)

Widening up of one category (but still just ONE class)

Answer 16

A word with a specific meaning starts to refer to a WIDER group of the SAME CLASS

eg. byrd (=young bird)
- > bird (=all birds)

Question 17

Pejoration, deterioration (mechanism)

Answer 17

When a word with a neutral or positive meaning undergoes change in which meaning becomes worse. eg. stenc (= any smell) -> stench 9a bad smell)

Question 18

Polysemy, radiation (mechanism)

POLY = many (ie. many classes)

Answer 18

Polysemy is when the meaning of one word transfers to members of a DIFFERENT CLASS
eg. Crane
a bird with a long neck
a type of construction equipment which looks like it has a long neck
to strain out one’s neck

Question 19

Amelioration, elevation (mechanism)

Answer 19

When the meaning of a word changes and improves.
eg.
“The word nice is a classic example of amelioration . . .. This is a rare occurrence, compared with the opposite process of pejoration, or downgrading.

“The meaning of nice when it first appeared in Middle English (about 1300) was ‘(of persons or their actions) foolish, silly, simple; ignorant, senseless, absurd.’

” . . . A shift away from disparagement began in the 1500s, with such meanings as ‘requiring or involving great precision or accuracy.’ . . .

“The movement toward amelioration reached its apex in the 1800s with such meanings as ‘kind and considerate, friendly.’”
(Sol Steinmetz, Semantic Antics: How and Why Words Change Meanings. Random House, 2008)