Mazur Chapter 7: Avoidance and Punishment

Question 1

Avoidance Paradox

Answer 1

How can the nonoccurrence of an event (shock) serve as a reinforcer for the avoidance response?

This led to the development of the two-factor theory

Question 2

Problems with the two-factor theory

Answer 2

Fear should be greatest when avoidance responses are the strongest, since fear is supposedly what motivates the avoidance response

However, observable signs of fear disappear as subjects become more experienced in avoidance tasks

Dinsmoor proposes that it is not necessary to assume that the CS produces fear – we only need to assume that the CS has become aversive

Question 3

Extinction of Avoidance Behavior

Answer 3

Avoidance responding should gradually deteriorate after a series of trials without shock

However, avoidance behaviors are extremely resistant to extinction

One factor theory and cognitive theory were developed to understand this complexity

Question 4

One-factor theory

Answer 4

There is no need to assume that escape from a fear-eliciting CS is the reinforcer for an avoidance response

Avoidance of a shock can in itself serve as a reinforcer

Sidman Avoidance Task, aka Free-Operant Avoidance:
Rats learned to press a lever to avoid shock

Classical Conditioning proponents’ response: passage of time served as the CS

Question 5

Shock Frequency Reduction Theory

Answer 5

Another way of referring to the one-factor theory, based on the work of Herrnstein and Hineline:

Rats learned to a press lever that decreases frequency of shock, for 30% to 10%

Pressing the lever did not ensure any shock-free time

Reduction in shock frequency is the reinforcer–there is no need to assume that fear or aversion to a CS controls the avoidance response

1. Animals can learn an avoidance response when neither an external CS nor the passage of time is reliable signal for shock
2. To master this task, animals must be sensitive to be average frequencies when they respond and when they do not respond

Question 6

Cognitive Theory of Avoidance

Answer 6

Seligman and Johnston (1973)

Animals’ behavior can only change in avoidance task if there is a discrepancy between expectancy and observation

As the trials proceed, the animal gradually develops the expectations that
1. No shock will occur if it makes a certain response

2. Shock will occur if it does not make the response

Once these two expectations have been formed, the animal’s behavior will not change until one or both of the expectations are violated

This can explain the slow extinction of avoidance behavior:
Only on a trial without an avoidance response can the animal observe an outcome (no response leads to no shock) that is inconsistent with its expectations

Question 7

The Procedure of Response Blocking (Flooding)

Answer 7

Extinction can be speeded up by using a procedure called response blocking, or flooding

Response blocking involves presenting the signal that precedes shock and preventing the subject from making the avoidance response

Question 8

Species-Specific Defense Reactions

Answer 8

Animals exhibit a type of preparedness in avoidance learning

SSDR’s fall into 3 categories :
fight
flight
freeze

The preparedness does not involve a stimulus-stimulus association, but rather the propensity to perform certain behaviors in potentially dangerous situations

Bolles called these innate behavior patterns species-specific defense reactions (SSDR’s), and rejected the two-factor theory of learning [“no owl hoots or whistles 5 seconds before pouncing on a mouse”]

Question 9

Difference between One-Factor Theory and Cognitive Theory

Answer 9

Cognitive theory: change in expectations

One-Factor Theory: changes in discriminative stimuli

Question 10

Flooding As Behavior Therapy

Answer 10

Treatment for phobias

Differs from Systematic Desensitization which uses a hierarchy of fearful aversive stimuli

Flooding–*No Hierarchy–start immediately with a highly feared stimulus and force the patient to remain in the presence of the stimulus until the patient’s external signs of fear subside

Tx for OCD, PTSD (prolonged exposure therapy)

Question 11

Learned Helplessness

Answer 11

Repeated exposure to aversive events that are unpredictable and out of the organism’s control can have long-term debilitating effects

Expectation is formed that behavior has little effect on their environment

This expectation may generalize to a wide range of situations

Question 12

Learned Optimism

Answer 12

Seligman’s proposed method to combat learned helplessness

Cognitive therapy that involves thinking about bad situations in more positive ways

Question 13

Methods to Combat Learned Helplessness

Answer 13

Helpless dogs are guided across the barrier for enough trials, they will eventually start making a response on their own

Seligman suggests that the best treatment is to place the subject in a situation where it cannot fail

Expectation gradually develops that behavior has some control over the consequences

Question 14

Punishment, general

Answer 14

Punishment produces a decrease in behavior

Thorndike and Skinner concluded that punishment is not the opposite of reinforcement

Skinner concluded that the effects of punishment are not permanent that punishment produces only a temporary suppression of responding

Question 15

View of Punishment Contrary to Thorndike and Skinner

Answer 15

Reinforcement produces an increase in whatever specific behavior is followed by the positive stimulus

Punishment produces a decrease in the specific behavior that is followed by the aversive stimulus

In both cases we can expect the changes in behavior to persist as long as the reinforcement or punishment contingency remain in effect

Question 16

Factors Influencing the Effectiveness of Punishment

Answer 16

Manner of Introduction

Immediacy of Punishment

Schedule of Punishment

Motivation to Respond

Reinforcement of Alternative Behaviors

Punishment As a Discriminative Stimulus

Question 17

Manner of Introduction

Answer 17

Punishement should be introduced at its full intensity

Punishment may have little or no effect on behavior if it is only gradually approached through successive approximations

Question 18

Immediacy of Punishment

Answer 18

The more immediate the punishment, the greater the decrease in response

Question 19

Schedule of Punishment

Answer 19

Azrin and Holtz concluded that the most effective way to eliminate the behavior is to use punishment after every response rather to use an intermittent schedule of punishment

This finding bolsters the argument that punishment is the opposite of reinforcement in its effects on behavior

Reinforcement schedules produce an accelerating pattern, the schedule of punishment produces a decelerating pattern

Question 20

Motivation to Respond

Answer 20

Effectiveness of a punishment procedure is inversely related to the intensity of the subjects motivation to respond

i.e. the more someone wants to do something, the less likely punishment will prevent them

Question 21

Reinforcement of Alternative Behaviors

Answer 21

Punishment is much more effective when the individual is provided with an alternative way to obtain the reinforcer

E.g. – to eliminate some unwanted behavior such as fighting among children, therapist almost always pairs the punishment with reinforcement for an alternative behavior that is incompatible with unwanted behavior, such as cooperative play

Question 22

Punishment As a Discriminative Stimulus

Answer 22

Punisher can also be a discriminative stimulus – predicting the availability of other stimuli, either pleasant or unpleasant

Azrin and Holz suggested that similar explanations may account for some instances of self injurious behaviors

Because self injurious behaviors often bring reinforcers of sympathy and attention, the aversive aspects of this type of behavior (pain) may serve as discriminative stimuli that reinforcement is imminent

Question 23

Disadvantages of Using Punishment

Answer 23

Emotional effects such as fear and anger that are generally disruptive to learning and performance
e.g punishing a student for their mistakes can backfire

Punishment can sometimes lead to a general suppression of all behaviors, not only the behavior being punished
e.g telling the student “that was stupid question” reduces all questions, not just “stupid” questions

Punishment demands continual monitoring behavior

Individuals may try to circumvent the rules escape from the situation entirely

Punishment can lead to aggression against the punisher or whomever happens to be around

In institutional settings, people who must actually implement a behavior modification program may be reluctant to use punishment

Question 24

Negative Punishment

Answer 24

The possibility of losing a reinforcer can have strong effects on behavior

Omission procedures are most effective if the omissions occur immediately after the undesired behavior – every time the behavior occurs

Question 25

Behavior Decelerators in Behavior Therapy

Answer 25

A behavior decelerator refers to any technique that can lead to a slowing, reduction or elimination of unwanted behaviors

Positive Punishment

Punishment of Voluntary Behaviors

Punishment of Involuntary Behaviors

Negative Punishment – Response Cost and Timeout

Overcorrection

Extinction

Escape Extinction

Response Blocking

Differential Reinforcement of Alternative Behavior

Stimulus Satiation

Question 26

Response Cost

Answer 26

The loss of tokens, money, or other conditioned reinforcers, decrease reoccurrence of undesirable behaviors

Question 27

Time Out

Answer 27

The most common form of negative punishment

One or more desirable stimuli are temporarily removed the individual performs some unwanted behavior

Question 28

Overcorrection

Answer 28

Several repetitions of an alternate, desirable behavior

It involves two parts:

1. Restitution – making up for wrongdoing
2. Positive practice – practicing a better behavior

Question 29

Extinction

Answer 29

If it is possible to remove reinforcer, the behavior should eventually disappear through simple extinction

E.g. removing attention

However, extinction is slow, especially if behavior has been reinforced in the past

Sometimes there’s an increase relative to decrease the beginning of the extinction process

E.g. temper tantrums get worse before they decrease in frequency

Question 30

Escape Extinction

Answer 30

Used when undesirable behavior is maintained by escape from a situation the individual does not like

E.g. the caregiver does not allow the child to escape the situation until the child eats

Question 31

Response Blocking

Answer 31

Physically restraining individuals to prevent the inappropriate behavior

This is for behaviors that are too dangerous and destructive to wait for extension to occur

Question 32

Differential Reinforcement of Alternative Behavior

Answer 32

Extinction of inappropriate behaviors, combined with reinforcement of more appropriate behaviors

E.g. psychiatric hospital – staff ignored psychotic speech and reinforced normal speech

Question 33

Stimulus Satiation

Answer 33

Presenting so much of the reinforcer that it loses its effectiveness due to stimulus satiation

Is used when it is impossible to remove the reinforcer that is maintaining an undesired behavior

E.g. psychiatric patient towels – staff brought towels to her room until she complained such enough and remove them herself

Question 34

SSDR’s and Learning Avoidance Responses

Answer 34

An avoidance response will be quickly learned if it is identical with, or at least similar to, one of the subject’s SSDR’s

e.g. it is very difficult to train a rat to avoid shock by pressing a lever versus jumping or running out of the compartment

Difficulty learning new responses such as lever pressing depends on the nature of the reinforcer

When the reinforcer is avoidance of shock, this is very difficult since it is not similar to the SSDR for avoidance for the rat

However when the reinforcer is for water, lever pressing is a relatively easy response for rats to learn

Question 35

Difference Between One Factor and Two-Factor Theory

Answer 35

The debate is really between those who favor a molar approach versus a molecular approach

Molar = One-Factor = long-term consequences
e.g. reduction in shock frequency

Molecular = Two Factor = immediate consequences control avoidance responses
e.g. bodily feedback can serve as an immediate reinforcer since responding can lead to safety

Question 36

Seligman and learned helplessness in humans

Answer 36

Early experience with uncontrollable aversive events produces a sense of helplessness that carries over into other situations, leading to learning and performance deficits