Mazur Chapter 13: Choice

Question 1

The Matching Law

Answer 1

A molar theory that states that in a two-choice situation, the proportion of responses directed toward one alternative should equal the proportion of reinforcers delivered by that alternative

When plotted, the results should be diagonal

Question 2

Undermatching

Answer 2

When the subjects’ responses or less extreme than the reinforcement proportions

Demonstrates a less consistent response to specific stimuli

May occur if the subject becomes used switching back and forth between reinforcement schedules worth the subject becomes confused due to the switch

Question 3

Changeover Delay

Answer 3

A delay in reinforcements after switch in order to decrease the chance that switching behaviors are reinforced

Question 4

Overmatching

Answer 4

Subjects responses are more extreme than the reinforcement proportions

Not as common as matching or undermatching

Question 5

Bias

Answer 5

A subject consistently spends more time on one alternative that’s predicted by the matching equation

Question 6

Concurrent Schedule

Answer 6

Any situation in which two or more reinforcement schedules are presented simultaneously

Question 7

Varying the Quality and Amount a Reinforcement in Concurrent Scheduling

Answer 7

When two reinforcers provide different types of reinforcement, modification of the matching law is needed to display an innate preference for one reinforcer over another

Quality of reinforcer

Amount of reinforcement

Question 8

Summary of Hernnstein’s Theory

Answer 8

An operant response must compete with all other possible behaviors for the individual’s time

As the reinforcement for the operant response increases, the individual will devote more and more time to this behavior

Question 9

Melioration Theory

Answer 9

Animals will invest increasing amounts of time and/or effort into whichever alternative is better

Question 10

Optimization Theory

Answer 10

A molar theory

Organisms aim to maximize reinforcement and minimize effort

An organism will try ways of distributing its behavior and settle on the response distribution that maximizes the overall rate of reinforcement
*it does this by mixing and matching its choices

Supporters of optimization theory argue that it provides an explanation of matching behavior, while matching law only provides a description of details

Question 11

Momentary Maximization Theory

Answer 11

A molecular theory that proposes that matching behavior is a byproduct of an animal’s orderly moment-by-moment choices

At each moment, an organism will select whichever alternative has the highest value at that moment

Question 12

Fix and Sample Theory

Answer 12

Organisms fix themselves to one option, but will occasionally try or “sample” the alternatives

Question 13

Hybrid Theories

Answer 13

Include both molar and molecular variables

Delay-reduction theory: agrees with matching theory but adds that the choice is also influenced by whichever choice produces less the delay in receiving the next reward

Question 14

Self-Control Choice Situation

Answer 14

When one has a choice between a small, proximal reinforcer now larger, but more distant reinforcer

Preference for one choice over the other is dynamic

Humans natural tendency to switch preferences over time is a critique against optimization theory

Question 15

Delay Discounting

Answer 15

The strength or value of a reinforcer decreases as its delay increases

Question 16

Indifference Point

Answer 16

The moment in deciding between a delayed or immediate reward when both a delayed and immediate response are equally favorable

Question 17

Ainslie-Rachlin Theory

Answer 17

The value of reinforcer decreases as the delay between making a choice in receiving the reinforcer increases

An individual chooses whichever reinforcer has a higher value at the moment of choice is made

Question 18

Precommitment

Answer 18

An individual makes a decision in advance which is impossible to change a later time

Question 19

Animal Studies on Self-Control

Answer 19

Animals are willing to engage in precommitment behavior

Especially if they had some distractor activity present during the delay

Question 20

Factors Affecting Self-Control in Children

Answer 20

Similar findings as with animals

Substantial individual differences were found in children as young as 2
e.g. IQ, parent-child interaction, environment, personality

Self-control can be trained by using shaping and modeling techniques

As in animals, if the child can see the reinforcer during the delay, they are more likely to switch the decision and select the short-term reinforcer

Question 21

Techniques for Improving Self-Control

Answer 21

Precommitment can be used to help with dieting, achieving higher grades

To override impulsive behaviors, the more immediate reinforcer is made contingent on the choice of the large, delayed reinforcer

Self reinforcement – the individual is creating and delivering their own reinforcer states

Question 22

Risk-Taking

Answer 22

Organisms are more willing to engage in risky behavior to acquire reinforcement when there is a greater time delay from when a specific reward was received

Organisms that are in life-threatening situations are more willing to engage in risky behaviors

Question 23

The Tragedy of the Commons

Answer 23

Impulsive behavior may not only lead to negative results for the performing individual, it is possible that such behavior will be detrimental to society in general

E.g. overfishing, polluting, over industrialization
– correctly a pre-commitment, e.g. legislation, fines etc.