Mary I and her ministers Flashcards
Northumberland’s failed Devyse…
On learning of Northumberland’s intentions to proclaim Lady Jane Grey queen, Mary had gathered together Catholic supporters, including some members of the nobility, in Norfolk. Northumberland immediately summoned troops, however many of the ships he sent had declared allegiance for Mary due to his unpopularity after his cruelty in dealing with Kett’s Rebellion. At this, members of the Privy Council decided to proclaim Mary as queen. Northumberland realised his plan had failed and proclaimed Mary as queen in the marketplace at Cambridge.
Northumberland’s plan was illegal and even upset some of his more committed supporters on the Privy Council. Mary had acted bravely, decisively, and quickly, gathering support from nobility, gentry, and ordinary folk.
How was Mary I’s accession greeted by the English people?…
Mary’s accession was greeted favourably by the English people, though it has been debated whether this was primarily because the English people supported the legitimate succession or because they welcomed England’s probable return to the Catholic faith.
The popular acclaim for Mary obscured some considerable problems…
> She inherited a kingdom that had fundamental religious divisions.
> She was Catholic in a kingdom which had a substantial Protestant minority.
> She had not been brought up to rule, and had little in the way of political instinct to help her cope with the challenges with which she was confronted.
> Her loyal and trusted supporters, such as Robert Rochester, Edward Waldegrave, Sir Henry Jerningham, and Sir Henry Bedingfield, had no serious experience in government.
> Mary would have to rely on those who had served her half-brother and were therefore implicated in the introduction of religious reforms that were distasteful to her.
Mary’s new councillors included…
> Bishop Stephen Gardiner, who had been her father’s secretary and had been a steadfast upholder of religious conservatism during Edward’s reign in which he had suffered imprisonment.
> Other churchmen, who had been excluded from influence during Edward’s reign.
> Some of the more conservative councillors who had at various times served Edward, most importantly Lord Paget.
A closer look - Mary’s councillors…
Mary appointed 50 councillors during her brief reign. This has led some historians to assert that such a large number of councillors inevitably led to inefficient and faction-ridden government, and to back this claim with the fact that Mary’s most important decision - to marry Philip of Spain - was never discussed formally in Council. However, this is misleading. Mary seems to have regarded ‘councillor’ as an honorary title; the working council board was much smaller and was dominated by such experienced figures as Stephen Gardiner (Bishop of Winchester) and William Paget. In any case, her trusted group of advisers included Cardinal Pole, who was never a member of the Privy Council.
Mary’s lack of ease with her key councillors…
Mary lost confidence in Lord Paget on account of his opposition to her religious programme, and she never fully trusted Bishop Gardiner, who had failed to support her mother at the time of the break with Rome. She did regard him as indispensable however, and his death in 1555 left a gap in government, particularly as Cardinal Pole distanced himself from secular issues.
Mary was thrown back on the advice of two foreigners whose judgement she trusted implicitly - her husband, Philip of Spain, and her cousin and father-in-law, Charles V.
Relationship between Mary and Parliament…
The relationship between Mary and Parliament was usually one of cautious cooperation. Around 80 MPs opposed the reversal of the Edwardian religious legislation, and opposition of Crown policies continued. Concern for property rights ensured that ex-monastic property would not be restored to the Church.
Moreover, a bill in 1555 to allow the seizure of property of Protestant exiles was defeated. Mary also quarrelled with Parliament over the issue of succession.
The Spanish marriage, 1554
Once Mary ascended to the throne, she regarded it as essential that she marry and produce an heir so that a Catholic succession would be guaranteed. Her relatively advanced age (37) meant that a marriage would take place as soon as possible, raising the question of who would she marry?
There was an English candidate for marriage, Edward Courtenay, Earl of Devon, who was Gardiner’s choice. Marriage to an Englishman brought with it the threat of factional rivalry, Courtenay lacked courtly skills and was seen as an unsuitable candidate.
Mary’s personal preference was for Philip of Spain - her first-cousin once-removed. Philip was Catholic and politically experienced, and his father, Charles V, had offered advice, guidance, and moral support throughout Mary’s years of unhappiness.
English public opinion was hostile and a parliamentary delegation had unsuccessfully attempted to dissuade Mary from her intentions.
Marriage treaty for Mary and Philip…
> Philip was to be given the title of king but was to exercise none of the power that went with the title.
> No foreigners were to be permitted to hold English offices.
> If Mary predeceased Philip, then the latter could have no claim on the English crown.
Parliament was not happy and in 1554, they rejected a bill that would specifically have included Philip along with Mary in a proposed new law on treason. In 1555, Parliament prevented Philip’s coronation as king.
The marriage of Mary and Philip…
The couple met for the first time on 23 July 1554 and the marriage ceremony took place in Winchester Cathedral two days later. Philip’s initial experience reinforced his prejudices. The weather was foul, the English court and people were unwelcoming, there was instant hostility from English courtiers, and Philip found himself marrying a woman who was 11 years his senior, seemed prematurely middle-aged in many respects, but whose attitude towards love and marriage seemed remarkably childlike. Philip resolved to spend the minimum time possible in his new kingdom.
Plans for the succession…
Mary’s overthrow of Northumberland and Edward’s Devyse had restored Henry VIII’s will (as established under the 1544 Succession Act). Under its terms, Mary would be succeeded by her half-sister, Elizabeth, should she die without an heir. This created issues for Mary as Elizabeth was a known-Protestant.
Mary had no love for Elizabeth, who she viewed as the reasons for her parents’ marriage breakdown, but she could never believe that Elizabeth was illegitimate as that would require either the overturning of the 1544 Act, or disqualify Elizabeth through treason.
Following the Wyatt’s Rebellion of Jan 1554, Elizabeth had been confined in the Tower of London as Mary suspected that she was implicated in the rebellion. Elizabeth was released after two months and kept under house arrest. Attempts to change the succession through Acts of Parliament came to nothing.
Mary died in 1558, 11 days after formally naming Elizabeth as her successor.
Relations with foreign powers…
Upon ascending to the throne, Mary had two main aims in terms of her relationship with foreign powers:
1) to restore England to papal supremacy
2) to marry Philip, the heir to the Spanish throne
Both of these aims were achieved, though it took longer than anticipated.
It was obvious that it would prove difficult for England to remain neutral in the event of any Franco-Spanish conflict. To make matters even more complicated, one of the main instigators of the renewed conflict was the anti-Spanish Pope Paul IV. Mary effectively found herself at war with the papacy.
England declared war on France in 1557 following a bizarre landing at Scarborough of French troops led by Thomas Stafford. Many members of the nobility were enthusiastic about the prospect of war, which offered a way for those who had been in disfavour due to links with Edward’s regime to regain some credit with the Crown.
Militarily, the campaign has a promising start. However, it soon turned into a disaster with the loss of Calais in 1558, which had been in English hands for centuries. No attempt was made to recapture the town and an attack on the port of Brest in the summer of 1558 failed dismally.
Naval and militia reforms…
> Six new ships were built, with many other ships being repaired
> Crown finances budgeted for a peacetime allocation of £14,000 to the navy
> These reforms laid the basis for the organisation of the navy, which would later allow Elizabeth to defeat the Spanish Armada
> Reformed at the end of Mary’s reign were the methods for the raising of troops, always important in a country that lacked a standing army - this was affected through two complementary Acts of Parliament
