Marriage, Divorce & Family Diversity Flashcards
What are some of the different types of marriage?
Monogamy - marriage to only one partner at a time
Serial Monogamy - marrying more than once in your life because of divorce/death
Polygamy - marriage to multiple partners at the same time
* polygyny - religion/culture allows a man to have multiple wives * polyandry - culture allows women to have multiple husbands
What are some of the key trends in marriage & the marriage rate?
- the marriage rate is generally decreasing (stable rate) with a curb at the end
- a rise in the age of those getting married
- still older men on av. marrying slightly younger women
- class elements:
66% of professional class marries
44% of unskilled class
What do the trends in marriage according to class suggest about marriage as an institution?
The marriage is increasingly becoming a middle-class institution - most likely due to the expenses involved
How does marriage differ in British Asian communities?
- Richard Bertroud: majority live in n family (above black & white av) & are much more likely to live in multigenerational households for cultural/religious reasons
- 3/4 of Bengali/Pakistani women marriage by 25 compared to half of white women
- Arranged marriages more common & less divorce
- Less likely to have interracial marriages than any other ethnic group
How does marriage differ in Afri-Caribbean communities?
- less likely to be in a formal marriage
- only 39% of black British born adults are in formal
marriages VS 60% of white adults
- only 39% of black British born adults are in formal
- Greater no. on lone-parent families
(black women more likely to be employed than black men, often women prefer to be economically independent & have strong kinship networks ‘fictive kin’) - Most likely to marry into other ethnic groups, particularly White British
(1/2 of UK children have one black and one white parent)
List reasons for why the marriage rate has fallen in the last 50 years.
- Changing attitudes
- Cost
- Increasing secularisation
- The emergence of the welfare state
- The emergence of a liberal society
- Increasing consumerism
- Modern attitudes to dating/relationships
How have changing attitudes caused a decline in the marriage rate?
- marriage no longer seen as an obligatory ceremony for status (rather a symbol of love & commitment)
- women often have high expectations of a marital relationship are happy to wait to find the most suitable partner
- Some women focus on their career and marriage is a low priority
- secularisation means people don’t see marriage as necessary
- Feminists would argue this is good as women are allowed to choose to be married rather than being forced into it by societies expectations
How has the cost of marriage impacted the marriage rate?
- marriage is now extremely expensive
- recent statistics in 2019 found the av cost of a wedding in the UK = £32,000
- many people (esp due to secularisation) would rather spend the money on something else e.g a house
DECLINE
How has increasing secularisation caused the marriage rate to decline?
- marriage is no longer seen as a sacred bond & an ideal to strive for in life
- less importance is placed in marriage as people are less religious
How has the Welfare state affected the marriage rate?
- Welfare policies have put people off marriage (unemployment benefit, cheaper child care)
- People can rely on the state & do not need financial/social security that a partner would offer
- NR would contend the state plays to the role of the husband for single mothers
How has increasing consumerism caused a decline in the marriage rate?
- consumerism & materialism in today’s Capitalist society enables lives of luxury
- obtaining wealth is the objective for many, not marriage
- some people may fulfil their need for a partner with material objects
How have modern attitudes to dating/relations caused a decline in the marriage rate?
- ideas of commitment & stability are becoming less common/old fashioned
- this is exacerbated today with the rise of dating apps that encourage disposability towards relationships
- E.g Tinder & Bumble
What arguments does Patrcia Morgan (2000) put forwards for why marriage is centrally important to society?
- married people make better workers
(more likely to be employed & earn 10-20% more because of a sense of duty) - Created a morally stable society
(married people less likely to be promiscuous) - Marriage is good for health
(Research from Aston Uni shows that if your male you’re more likely to survive diabetes & high blood pressure if your married)
What reasons does Patrcia Morgan (2000) provide for why the marriage rate is in decline?
- The welfare state (Rector argues that it has damaged marriage because welfare has allowed single parenthood as a viable option)
- Secularisation (wedding vows are decreasingly seen as ‘sacred’ and adultery/divorce no longer considered shameful)
- Cohabitation (the number of cohabiting couples has doubled in the last two decades - replacing marriage?)
How is the New Right criticised for their view on marriage?
- people are increasingly willing to delay marriage because of high expectations of marriage (FEMINISTS argue women esp insist on egalitarian partnerships & are happy to wait to find it)
- British social attitudes surveys found marriage is still the ‘gold standard’ people aim towards (40% of all marriage are remarriage, people not giving up on institution)
- People might not be able to afford a wedding (marriage in decline at a faster rate amongst unskilled workers)
What do more Liberal minded thinkers (Feminists) believe that the fall in the marriage rate is a positive thing for society?
- marriage now perceived as a personal & intimate relationship that needs to be sustained
- people now look for egalitarian relationships rather than patriarchal ones
- marriage no longer seen as an obligatory ceremony for status (allows women more freedom of choice)
- actually demonstrated how people are less carefree towards marriage (they actually think)
- marriage is seen as a serious individual choice (marriage delayed to find the right partner)
What did Epstein (2011) contend about arranged marriage?
- arranged marriages tend to grow more stable as time goes on, whereas love marriages are more likely to deteriorate
- arranged marriages tended to feel more in love the longer they spent together, whereas those in love marriages felt less love over time
- arranged marriages are generally more successful as compatibility is carefully checked (beliefs, values, interests & goals)
- couples have more confidence in each other so are more likely to commit
What is a forced marriage? (FMU)
“a marriage conducted without the valid consent of both parties where duress (emotional & physical pressure/abuse) is a factor”
What are the statistics for forced marriages?
- 2013: 1,302 forced marriages
- FMU estimated there were actually 8,000 a year in the UK
Very difficult to assess the real degree of the issue as victims are reluctant to speak out in fear of honour crimes (abduction, acid attacks, mutilation)
Why are there 2 legal definitions of marriage?
- Following the 2013 Marriage Act many religious organisations have objected the same-sex marriage
- marriages recognised by the state
- marriages recognised by the C of E
- other religious groups exclude gay marriage completely
Why does Patricia Morgan object to same-sex marriage?
- indicated a rejection of Christian values & demonstrates moral decline
- contends an alternative secular ideology has become dominant in Western Society - seeks to undermine the moral authority of religious institutions & n family
What were the arguments for the Marriage Act 2013?
- the previous system stopped gay couples having the same status & legal rights are hetro marriage (their marriage was just legally validated)
- it’s not right that a couple who love each other & want to publicly confirm & formalise that love should be denied the right to marry
What is Cohabitation?
Living with a partner but not being married or in a civil partnership (couples living together)
^ fastest-growing household types in the UK
What are the ONS statistics on the number of people cohabiting?
- 2012: approx. 5.9 mil people (not couples) were cohabiting - from 1996
What effect has cohabitation had on childbearing?
More children born outside of wedlock
- 1938: 4% of children born outside of marriage
- 2012: 47.5% of children born outside of marriage
Why has is cohabitation the fastest-growing household in the UK?
- increasing/high house prices
- secularisation
- the changing role of women
- changing attitudes towards marriage (no longer seen as an obligation)
- Higher expectations (women willing to wait to marry the right partner)
- Expense of weddings
Why are the New Right so critical of increasing cohabitation?
- P. Morgan: responsible for the decline of marriage & traditional nuclear family
- Less stable than marriage: more likely to breakdown and be reliable to on state & more likely to contain promiscuity and infidelity (Morgan claims evidence suggests these couples are less happy and fulfilled)
- Murphy: children’s parents who live together but don’t marry do worse at school (2007)
What do Beaujouan & Ni Bhrolchain contend about cohabitation?
- cohabitation has become normalised
- acts as a pre-marriage test/’trial run’ (couples get to experience what married life is like & if they’re compatible)
- screens out weaker relationships (marked ‘dead end’ marriages less common & divorce)
What do Feminists contend about cohabitation?
- Cohabitation has led to more quality in gender roles
(if living as a couple without children, likely to both be in work & for this to continue into family life - dual careers)
What do Beaujouan & Ni Bhrolchain respond with to the New Right’s criticism of cohabitation?
- Cohabitation often results in marriage: research showed then by the 10th anniversary 1/2 of cohobating couples had gotten married
- Cohabitation rarely a long term arrangement: if the ‘trial run’ fails couples break up…
- Marriage remains the main cultural goals (surveys & ONS indicate this)
- Cohabitation potentially responsible for the decline in the divorce rate
What are the 3 types of marital breakdown?
- DIVORCE: legal ending of a marriage
- pre-1969: had to prove matrimonial offences
(adultery, desertion, cruelty) - post-1969: ‘irretrievable breakdown’
- pre-1969: had to prove matrimonial offences
- SEPERATION: couples agree to live apart after the marital breakdown, what some religious people may do
- EMPTY-SHELL MARRIAGES: husband & wife stay together in name only, no longer love or intimacy between them. This may happen for the sake of the kids
What age group has experienced a higher divorce rate?
‘silver splitters
rise in divorce by 45% since 2002
age 60+
What are the key trends in the divorce rate in the last 50 years?
- the divorce rate rose fairly consistently 1972-93
( peaked at 165,000 divorces) - from 1993 onwards, the general trend has been that the divorce rate is dropping
( 91,000 divorces in 2019)
List the reasons why divorce has increased.
- Changes in the law
- Changes in attitudes (higher expectation)
- Secularisation of society
- Women into the workforce
- declining influence of the extended family
- women less likely to take full responsibility for domestic tasks
How has changes to the law caused the divorce to increase?
1969 DIVORCE REFORM ACT
- married people didn’t have to prove ‘fault’ or ‘guilt’/matrimonal offences
- new ‘irretrievable breakdown’ condition made it easier & cheaper to obtain a divorce
- sudden rush of files for divorce as many couples in empty shell marriages struggled to obtain a divorce beforehand
How have changed in attitudes caused a rise in divorce?
- individuals in modern society expect much more from marriage than previous generations
- FUNCTIONALISTS: contend high divorce rates are evidence that marriage is of higher value today & people’s standards towards marital behaviour are high
- FEMINISTS: (Thornes & Collard) argue increased divorce rates suggest women expect more from marriage than men & women value friendship/emotional gratification more than men - 54% (2012) of women-initiated divorces because of husbands unreasonable behaviour
How has the secularisation of society caused the divorce rate to increase?
- decline in religious beliefs led to the legal allowances of divorce… later it became socially acceptable
( no longer associated w/ stigma & shame) - Although, some religious people see divorce as breaking religious law
How has the entry of women into the workforce caused the divorce rate to increase?
- gave lots of women financial independence which give them more freedom of choice
- Hart (1976): notes increased divorce may be a result of women becoming frustrated with husband’s expectation women being responsible for most domestic duties & childcare whilst they also complete paid work
How has the declining influence of the extended family caused the divorce rate to increase?
- decline in the control of kinships which traditionally persuaded couples to stay together (otherwise they would be labelled ‘shameful’) is absent
- nuclear family societies usually find divorce acceptable as it can lead to greater happiness for someone (even more so if the marriage involved abuse)
How has women’s rejection of full responsibility for domestic tasks caused a higher divorce rate?
- due to changing attitudes of gender roles & higher expectations - many women are less likely to accept full responsibility for domestic tasks
- Women simply won’t put up for it: 54% of all women-initiated divorces in 2012 were due to the husband’s unacceptable behaviour
- Hart (1976) suggests divorce rates have increased because women have become fed up with their husband’s expectation for them to do all the domestic work & childcare
What are the 3 factors POSTMODERNISTS suggest for a rise in divorce?
Beck & Beck-Gernshiem
- INDIVIDUALISATION
people are under less pressure to conform to traditional expectation and can pursue their individual roles (selfishness) - CONFLICT
potential conflict between genders as marriage encourages selflessness but individualism encourages selfishness - often makes marriage a battleground where selfishness often wins (divorce) - CHOICE
cultural & economic changes mean a greater choice/range of lifestyles & living arrangements leads to greater family diversity (cohabitation, marriage, divorce is merely another choice in post-modern society)
Why has the divorce rate dropped since 2000?
- The age which people marry has been increasing - research shows those marrying at an older age are less likely to get divorced
- Increase in chobaitation in recent years - evidence shows this may be working to prevent fragile relationships from progressing to marriage –> divorce
What evidence strongly suggests the New Right have exaggerated fears of divorce?
- although 40% of all marriages end in divorce, 60% are still successful
- > 75% of children are living with both natural parents who are legally married
- ONS: av marriage in the UK lasts 32 years
- 2/5 of all marriages are remarriage, divorce doesn’t necessarily lead to an anti-divorce attitude
What type of family is often produced by marital breakdown?
One-parent families
- in 1962, only 2% of UK households single parent
- 2012, ONS found this was 25%
- 90% involve one mother
- <10% involve one father
What is the New Right perspective on lone-parent families?
- second rate/imperfect family structure
- Morgan: they’re caused by adults who put selfish needs before those of children
- contend there is a large group of single mothers who are long-term unemployed, uneducated & become mothers to claim welfare benefits (‘perverse incentive’)
What did The Centre for Social Justice report on ‘fractured families’?
Reported that a child growing up with a single mother is more likely to:
- grow up in poorer housing
- gain behavioural issues
- gain fewer educational qualifications
- report depressive symptoms & higher levels of smoking, drinking & drugs
How does Mooney (2009) criticise the New Right for their view on lone-parent families?
- Mooney (2009):
- parental conflict is more important than parental separation as an influence in producing negative outcomes in children.
- Children is a home with conflict are even more likely to develop behavioural issues
How do Ford & Miller (1998) criticise the New Right for their view on lone-parent families?
- ‘perverse incentive’ argument flawed because many single mothers attempt to spend less on themselves to protect their children from poverty & state benefit is not sufficient for a good standard of living
- many single parents do most ‘choose’ this lifestyle - their survey shows poverty is a caused of single parenthood
How do Feminists criticise the New Right perspective of lone-parent families?
- one-parent families are unfairly discriminated against because of familial ideology (emphasises the n family structure)
- leads to negative labelling of lone-parent families by different areas of society
- consequently, this bias may affect them in other areas e/g receiving poorer accommodation
What are reconstituted families?
Families which are made through remarrying
(involved step-parents & children from previous marriages)
^ one of the fastest-growing family types in the UK because of divorce & remarriage
What challenges do reconstituted families face?
De’Ath & Slater’s 1992 study
- children pulled in two different directions (disloyal to natural parent Vs step-parent)
- strained relations between step-parent & children - unwilling to accept & trust new parental figure
- the step-parent may resent their step-child & see them as a symbol of their partner’s previous love
What is singlehood?
Single-person households
- biggest category of households in the UK
- 2013: 13% of pop lived alone (almost 4x higher than it was 40 yrs ago)
- nearly twice as many single-person households than nuclear families
What are the ethnic variations in singlehood living?
16% White people
7% British Indians
4% British Pakistani
Why are there more single-person households amongst young people?
- More women are gaining financial independence & choosing singlehood as an option before settling down (some are opting for voluntary childlessness as careerists)
- Trends in marriage suggest that people are marrying later & have other priorities e.g uni/career
- The increase in divorce creates both one-parent families and single-person households
What are LAT couples?
‘living apart together’ couples
- they’re strongly committed to each other but live separately by choice/circumstance
- a growing & increasingly acceptable lifestyle
Why do people choose LAT lifestyles?
- 30% were LATs by choice as one/both partners wanted to live apart
- 19% were LATS because of ‘constraints - wanted to share a home but couldn’t because of circumstances e.g unsuitable accommodation
- 12% were ‘situational - they regarded their lifestyle choice as best for their circumstances
What is the LIFE COURSE?
The life course is a postmodernist set of analysis…
It states that rather than looking at static family types we should look at rites of passage & different experiences as they better reflect our diverse, fast-changing modern life
What are the stages of the life course according to Tamara Hareven (2000)?
- Birth
- Early childhood (being a baby)
- Infancy (toddler)
- Childhood (beginning w/ compulsory school)
- Adolsence (teen years)
- Young adulthood (19-29)
- Adulthood (30-50)
- Middleage (51-64)
- Old age (beginning w/ retirement)
- Death
What did the Postmodernist sociologist Stacy contend about family life?
- family life is not about living in a static & unchanging ideal type of family structure
- she says family & households are not concrete things people should strive to achieve
- rather, family life is a continuous state of flux & change - so there is no such things as a perfect family
What did Pahl & Spencer (2001) argue about family life?
- the concept of ‘family’ is no longer useful to describe personal relationships in 21st c
- they suggest people feel they no longer have to maintain relationships w/ other kin outside of duty/obligation
- instead people are more likely to be in ‘personal communities’ made up of family & friends
What do Weeks et al. (2001) contend about homosexual family life?
- suggest the concept of ‘family’ is being used by homosexuals to devote something broader than the heterosexual version
- they note the gay model of the family often refers to kin-like networks based on friendships
What dies Smart (2007) contend about personal life?
- recommends using the term ‘personal life’ over ‘family’ because family is too often associated with value judgments about idea/normal family types
- argues the concept of ‘personal life’ is more neutral & flexible because it goes beyond marriage & biological kinship (includes modern relationships: post-divorce, same-sex, LAT)
