Major Theorists [Joe's Outline] Flashcards
Ebbinghaus
First to experiment with learning theories
Used himself as subject to test the memory capabilities in learning nonsense syllables
Developed the learning curve
From his work, the primacy/recency effects, relearning properties, retroactive and proactive inhibition were uncovered
Retroactive inhibition = what one learns after, disrupts earlier learning
Proactive inhibition = what one learns now, disrupts later learning
Thorndike
Sensory impressions (S) and impulses to respond (R)
Afferent (S) and efferent (R) nerves = responses in S-R association
Focused on internal procedures/factors/constructs
Learning only occurs via trial and error
Insight doesn’t help
Experience is all that matters
The law of effect
o If a behavior is followed by a satisfying state of affairs (S+), this connection between stimulus and response is strengthened
o S- will lead to a weakened connection
o Satisfiers and annoyers are the key terms used by Thorndike in his theory
o Later revised and dropped negative aspect to this law
• Believed punishment/annoyers only indirectly influenced behavior
Law of readiness
o If one is ready to act, one is in a satisfying state
Law of exercise
o Use and disuse strengthen and weaken the S-R connection
o Later added that feedback, such as reward and punishment must also be provided during exercise
Practice is of value because it permits rewards to occur
Theory of intelligence
o The more S-R bonds one has made, the more intelligent (s)he is
o “bond theory” = to become smarter, increase the number of bonds
Transfer of training
Positive transfer = similar elements of one S-R relation make it easier to form a new one
Negative transfer = similar elements of one S-R relation make it harder to form a new one
Spread of effect
o The effect of a reward spreads to nearby, similar S-R relations
o This effect has been shown to not really exist
Watson
Known for his little Albert study
Was attempting to demonstrate classical conditioning (that the animal was paired with a loud noise), but in reality, he was demonstrating operant conditioning
They were punishing Albert’s voluntary behavior
The most strict behaviorist
Believed learning occurred in the peripheral nervous system
And that the entire idea of the mind could be reduced down to neurological functions
Thoughts are nothing more than silent speech
Advocated that learning depended solely on the frequency of repetition
Involving the association of stimuli with kinesthetic and proprioceptive feedback
Recency also plays a strong role
Pavlov
Proposed the first stimulus substitute (S-S) learning theory
Natural, UCS, are either innate or develop via natural maturation
The context plays an important role due to extraneous variables
“Conditioning” not “learning”
Reinforcement
If the CS is followed by the UCS, conditioning occurs
Does not include food
To Pavlov, reinforcement meant strengthen, not reward
Experimental extinction
• Displaying the CS without the reinforcer, decreases one’s rate of CR
• But true extinction of a behavior was not possible
• The stimuli has now been forever changed
Extinction = a state of inhibition
Spontaneous recovery
• Only temporary
Generalization
Differentiation
• What Pavlov called “discrimination”
• True discrimination is actual an over-generalization
Differentiation training
• Only presenting the UCS with the desired pairing
• Never present the undesired stimuli without the conditioning factor
• This prevents discrimination from occurring
Overlap contingencies
o Simultaneous pairing
o Delayed pairing
• 5 or more seconds
Nonoverlap contingencies o Short trace conditioning o Long trace conditioning o Backward conditioning • Temporal conditioning o The passage of time functions as the CS
Man and animal both have a conditioned reflex system
o Only men have a speech and language system
Varieties of inhibition (ways to decrease a response)
External inhibition
• Temporarily decrease via external stimuli
• Can orient the subject away from the CS
Internal inhibition – slow but progressive methods
Experimental extinction
• Presenting the CS without the UCS
Differential inhibition
• Condition a response that is incompatible with the behavior one is trying to inhibit
Conditioned inhibition
• A combo of stimuli that repress the behavior one is attempting to inhibit
Inhibition by delay
• By introducing another stimuli that disrupts the CS from being reinforced, not only makes the CS less effective, but inhibits similar responses, i.e. the CR
Disinhibition
• Externally inhibiting an internal inhibition
• Actively blocking the inhibitory response (using an extinguished stimuli) leads to its opposite, an excitatory response
Twitmeyer
Discovered classical conditioning before Pavlov but no one showed any interest in it
The Brelands
First applied animal psychologists
Recognized limits in attempting to condition animals
Biology, anatomy, and instinct override conditioning techniques
Mateer (1918)
Worked with infants and conditioning feeding behaviors
Salter
Known for assertion training and conditioned reflex therapy
Advanced Pavlov’s work
There is a duel process occurring during conditioning
o Training is either excitation training (if a reinforcer is present) or inhibition training (if there is no reinforcer present)
Believed hypnosis worked due to underlying conditioning
Watson and Rayner (1920)
Little Albert study
Upton (1929)
Conditioned asthmatic reactions in guinea pigs using egg whites and a bell/tone
Casort (1922)
Examined pupil responses
Lidell (1928)
Some falsely believe he was the real founder of behavioral therapy
Guthrie
What we know best of his theory stems from the writings of one of his students
o Virginia Voeks
Focused on the smallest behaviors and stimuli
Rejected the Law of Effect
• All laws of learning can be derived from just one
The best predictor of behavior is by examining previous behavior
With the power of a stimulus attributed to a stimulus first pairing with a response
Recognized that some stimuli were incompatible with specific responses
Did not believe in generalization or motivation
Warned about punishment can distract us from what we are truly looking for
Principle of association
Best conditioning occurs if stimuli and response are less than .5 seconds apart
o The only way direct learning can occur
Principle of postremity (recency)
o A response becomes conditioned to the stimuli that was presented last
Principle of response probability
o The more stimuli associated with a specific behavior, the more likely the chance the behavior associated with those behaviors will occur
o This rule overrides the principle of postremity
Principle of dynamic situation
o Responding to a specific stimuli can lead to the subject modifying the stimuli that subject will respond to in the future
• A cyclic pattern
Clark L. Hull
Macro-theorist – attempting to create a theory that is all-inclusive
Stems from Thorndike’s work
Spence added continuity to Hull’s work
4 postulates to his theory
A simple restatement of the law of effect
Learning entails drive reduction, motivation
Learning can occur in small increments and does not require a drive to be fully eliminated
Any stimulus that is present when a primary reinforcer is being supplied will take on the characteristics of the primary reinforcer
Secondary reinforcers can act in the same manner
When a drive is reduced, that behavior becomes reinforced, making it a secondary drive
Learning is continuous and cumulative but many unique factors can influence an individual’s ability to learn
Individual differences, drive states, incentives, features, etc.
Hull’s response evocative formula to predict behavior
o sEr = (D x sHr) – (Ir + sIr)
• Drive (D),
• sHr (habit strength),
• based on past experiences
• Ir (reactive inhibition),
• Represents fatigue and boredom
• sIr (conditioned inhibition)
• learned inhibition
o later adapted to
• sEr = (D x sHr) – (Ir x sIr)
• sEr = (2M x D x sHr)/3 – (Ir x sIr)
• included the magnitude of reinforcers
• sEr = (K x 2M x D x sHr)/3 – (Ir x sIr)
• included the degree of incentive
• known for testing theories using T-mazes
o Skinner and Tolman attacked him here, forcing Hull to constantly amend his theories
o Gradient of reinforcement
• The easiest, and most immediate learned behavior is that which produces the quickest reward
• A chain occurs here, with end goal (r1) having influenced prior responses in an effort to reach this goal (r2, r3, ri)
• Little r-g = the goal-related behavior
• Little s-g = the feeling related to performing that behavior
o Habit-family hierarchy
• Set of alternative habits integrated by a common goal stimulus and arranged in a preferential order
