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Biology 2017 > Macromolecules > Flashcards

Macromolecules Flashcards

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1
Q

What are the two major groups of molecules

A

Organic and Inorganic

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2
Q

3 characteristics of organic Molecules (Macromolecules)

A

Have carbon, produced in association with living things and are complex

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3
Q

4 types of macromolecules

A

Carbohydrates, Proteins, nucleic acid (DNA, RNA), lipids (fats and oils)

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4
Q

What does a polysaccharide contain

A

Repeating units of sugar

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5
Q

2 Examples of a mono-saccharide

A

Glucose, fructose

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6
Q

Examples of a Di-saccharide

A

Sucrose, lactose

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7
Q

3 examples of a polysaccharide

A

Starch, cellulose, glycogen

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8
Q

What is the purpose of glucose

A

Source of energy

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9
Q

What is the purpose of starch

A

Used by plants to store excess energy

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10
Q

What is the purpose of cellulose

A

In the structure of cell walls

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11
Q

Purpose of glycogen

A

Storage of energy in muscle (animals only)

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12
Q

Purpose of chitin

A

Exoskeleton of authropods

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13
Q

Chitosan purpose

A

Cell wall of fungi

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14
Q

What are lipids made up of

A

Subunits of glycerol and fatty acids.

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15
Q

What are lipids used for

A

Storage of excess energy

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16
Q

What is the primary structure of a protein

A

The sequence of amino acids

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17
Q

What two aspects make up a lipid

A

Glycerol and fatty acids

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18
Q

What three parts make up a phospholipid

A

Glycerol, phosphate and fatty acids

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19
Q

Formula for carbohydrates

A

C6H12O6

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20
Q

What are enzymes used for

A

Biological catalysts

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21
Q

What are enzymes

A

Proteins

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22
Q

What is the specific region where enzymes bind to a subtrate called

A

Active site

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23
Q

What happens to an enzyme when it comes into contact with a subtrate

A

Enzyme shape changes to more perfectly fit the substrate

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24
Q

What happens to enzymes when they get too hot

A

Denature

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25
Q

What are four things which may stop enzymes from working

A

Temperature, pH, Concentration and the Presence of inhibitors

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26
Q

What’s a competitive inhibitor

A

An inhibitor which is the same shape as the substrate, binds to the enzyme and doesn’t Let go

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27
Q

What’s a non competitive inhibitor

A

Binds elsewhere on the enzyme Changing the shape of the active site.

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28
Q

What is the primary structure of a protein

A

The sequence of amino acids

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29
Q

What two aspects make up a lipid

A

Glycerol and fatty acids

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30
Q

What three parts make up a phospholipid

A

Glycerol, phosphate and fatty acids

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31
Q

Formula for carbohydrates

A

C6H12O6

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32
Q

What are enzymes used for

A

Biological catalysts

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33
Q

What are enzymes

A

Proteins

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34
Q

What is the specific region where enzymes bind to a subtrate called

A

Active site

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35
Q

What happens to an enzyme when it comes into contact with a subtrate

A

Enzyme shape changes to more perfectly fit the substrate

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36
Q

What happens to enzymes when they get too hot

A

Denature

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37
Q

What are four things which may stop enzymes from working

A

Temperature, pH, Concentration and the Presence of inhibitors

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38
Q

What’s a competitive inhibitor

A

An inhibitor which is the same shape as the substrate, binds to the enzyme and doesn’t Let go

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39
Q

What’s a non competitive inhibitor

A

Binds elsewhere on the enzyme Changing the shape of the active site.

40
Q

What do enzymes do to reaction energy

A

Lower it

41
Q

Do enzymes change the energy of the products

A

No

42
Q

What are the three ways enzymes lower activation energy

A

Correctly orientate reactants, bind to the substrate putting a strain on the bonds between molecules, makes a long complicated sequence of steps requiring only a small amount of activation energy

43
Q

Role of DNA

A

Give genetic information to new cells, contain the ‘instructions’ on how to create proteins vital for a cells function

44
Q

Polymer define

A

Repeating units of nucleotides

45
Q

3 aspects of a nucleotide

A

Phosphate, Sugar, Nucleotide

46
Q

Complimentary base pairs and number of hydrogen bonds

A

A-T two

G-C three

47
Q

Why is DNA replication a semi conservative process

A

Includes 1 new and old strand of DNA

48
Q

When does DNA replication occur in the cell cycle

A

Interphase

49
Q

Four steps of DNA replication

A

1) Helicase breaks hydrogen bonds 2) Free nucleotides join to complementary base pairs using DNA polymerase 3) Enzyme rewinds double helix 4) Two new double Helices each containing one of the original strands are formed.

50
Q

Gene define

A

A sequence of DNA that has instructions to make a protein

51
Q

Where are proteins made

A

Ribosomes

52
Q

What does transcription do

A

Creates a molecule to take instructions to the ribosome

53
Q

Qualities of RNA

A

Single stranded, ribose sugar not deoxyribose, can leave nucleus, uses Uracil instead of Thymine

54
Q

3 types of RNA

A

messenger RNA, transfer RNA, ribosomal RNA

55
Q

3 steps of transcription

A

1) DNA unwinds at specific point using enzyme Helicase
2) Free RNA base pairs start to line up against the right DNA strand
3) RNA base pairs join together with help from the enzyme RNA polymerase to form the mRNA molecule. The original DNA strands rejoin with help from the enzyme DNA polymerase

56
Q

Description of tRNA

A

Contains an anticodon at one end and a specific amino acid at the other, clover shaped

57
Q

What is a gene mutation

A

Change in genetic material (DNA Code)

58
Q

What is ‘junk’ DNA

A

DNA which doesn’t code for a protein, makes up 93% of human DNA

59
Q

What frequency do mutations occur at

A

1 in every billion base pairs, everybody has about 6 mutations per cell

60
Q

3 effects mutations may have

A

Cause harm, be helpful, have no effect

61
Q

How do genetic mutations effect a population

A

Cause genetic variation, may allow some people to survive better

62
Q

Which mutations are passed on to offspring

A

Mutations in gametes

63
Q

3 types of mutations

A

Substitution, Deletion, Insertion

D & I are frameshift

64
Q

Will substitution mutations effect the amino acid or protein

A

Maybe

65
Q

Will insertion mutations effect the amino acid or protein

A

Yes, always

66
Q

Will deletion mutations effect the amino acid or protein

A

Yes, always

67
Q

Example of a substitution mutation

A

Sickle cell anemia

68
Q

Example of an insertion mutation

A

Hungtingtons disease

69
Q

What natural factors cause gene mutations

A

UV Light, radiation, increased temperatures

70
Q

What non natural factors cause mutations

A

X-Ray’s, smoking, chemicals (carcinogens)

71
Q

What are bases attached to in DNA

A

Sugar Phosphate backbone

72
Q

What is a chromosome made of

A

Many Genes

73
Q

What is the induced fit model

A

when the active site on the enzymes makes contact with the proper substrate, the enzyme molds itself to the shape of the molecule

74
Q

First 3 steps of PCR

A

Remove bacterial DNA (known as a plasmid).

Cut the Bacterial DNA with restriction enzymes.

Cut the DNA with the required gene from the “gene donor” organism. This is done with restriction enzymes.

75
Q

Final 4 Steps of PCR

A

Select the required gene in gene donor DNA using a probe or antibody method and cut the gene required using the restriction enzyme. The DNA is left with “sticky ends”. Sticky ends have a complementary code that allows it to attach to complementary plasmid donor DNA

Restriction enzymes are used to cut the plasmid complementary to the sticky ends. Combine the cut pieces of DNA into the plasmid with the enzyme ligase and insert them into bacteria

Reproduce the recombinant bacteria.

The foreign genes will be expressed in the bacteria which code for the needed protein.

76
Q

What is a DNA probe

A

A short piece of DNA or RNA which is complementary to the gene to locate it. It is labelled with a radioactive chemical and mixed with the DNA strand. It is heated to unzip the DNA and on cooling the probe will have bonded to the specific area of the DNA

77
Q

Why is taq polymerase used

A

DNA polymerase would denature when PCR is heated to Almost 100 degrees

78
Q

What is primer used for

A

Prevent the DNA from binding with the original strand

79
Q

What is buffer used for in PCR

A

Maintains pH

80
Q

4 steps of Gel Electrophoresis

A
  1. Cut DNA sample with restriction enzymes at recognition sites. The lengths of the DNA fragments will vary depending on the individual. These DNA fragments are known as Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLPs)

Place the DNA into an agarose gel which is connected to a power source with +ve (anode) and –ve (cathode) electrodes. “Run” the DNA fragments through a gel.

  1. The phosphate group gives the DNA a negative charge, therefore the DNA fragments will move towards the positive electrode
  2. Bands will form in the gel known as a DNA fingerprint. The longer ones do not move as far as the shorter fragments.
  3. Everyone’s DNA bands are unique due to some fragments and can be used to identify a person. The Junk DNA found in our chromosomes are what make our DNA more unique
81
Q

What is transgenesis

A

This is the incorporation of “foreign” DNA into higher order plants and animals.

82
Q

3 steps of somatic cell transfer

A
  1. A nucleus with desired DNA is
    added to another egg cell and fused using electrical impulses.
  2. The cell will grow into an embryo
  3. The embryo is implanted into a surrogate and grown to term
83
Q

What does the unique shape of each and every protein determine

A

It’s particle function as its structure is suited to this

84
Q

How do most proteins function

A

By recognising and binding to other molecules

85
Q

What is the primary structure of a protein

A

The unique sequence of amino acids

86
Q

What is the secondary structure of a protein

A

The coiling or folding that contributes to the particular shape of the protein caused by hydrogen bonding between the amino acids

87
Q

What is the tertiary structure of a protein

A

The three dimensional folding of the polypeptide chain to give rise to its functional shape

88
Q

What is the quaternary structure of a protein

A

For proteins that have more than one polypeptide chain linked together, arises due to bonding between the chains

89
Q

How does the structure of receptor proteins assist in their functions

A

It will have a particular shape that will bind to the shape of specific messenger molecule such as a hormone

90
Q

What are antigens

A

Foreign or non-self molecules usually found embedded in the membrane of cells

91
Q

What are antibodies

A

Protein molecules that are part of the defence system of organisms and act by binding to antigens

92
Q

What is about antibodies that allows them to bind with and inactive antigens

A

The particular 3D shape of the quaternary structure

93
Q

What is the process of DNA hybridization

A

DNA from two species is heated to get complementary strands to separate from one another. Upon cooling the single strands of DNA recombine to form the DNA double helix again. The degree of bonding between one species’ DNA and another gives a measure of how closely related the two species are

94
Q

3 general uses of genetic engineering

A

Producing desired proteins eg Insulin or vaccines
Improving plants
Improving animals

95
Q

3 steps of transferring genes into animals

A

1) Isolate gene of interest
2) inject the recombinant DNA with a fine glass needle into the pronuclei present in the embryo 12-14 hrs after fertilisation
3) transfer embryo to a recipient mother where it can develop into normal animal

96
Q

Three steps of PCR

A

DNA is heated to about 95 degrees to separate the complimentary strands, primer is used to prevent strands from rejoining
DNA polymerase and free nucleotide are added
DNA is cooled to allow binding of the free nucleotides to the exposed bases and the formation of complementary strands of DNA

97
Q

Describe the process of gel electrophoresis

A

Restriction enzymes extract DNA from cells creating ‘‘restriction fragments’. The fragments are placed at one end of a flat rectangular gel, electrodes are at both ends and DNA (has negative charge PO4^3-) moves towards positive end, smaller fragments move quicker allowing scientists to compare differences

Biology 2017 (5 decks)

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